作者：黄怀军

法国思想家伏尔泰(Voltaire，1694—1778)的戏剧《中国孤儿》(1755)是根据中国元代(1271—1368)杂剧作家纪君祥(生卒年不详)的《赵氏孤儿》改编而成的。是耶稣会法国(一说比利时)神父马若瑟( 1666—1735)的法译本《赵氏孤儿》(只有宾白，而无唱词)之后[1]。伏本无论是在情节结构、人物设置及发生时间，还是思想主题和创作倾向，与纪本相比，都相去甚远。

《赵》剧则是取材于《左传·宣公二年》、《史记·赵世家》等史书，讲的是春秋时代发生在晋国的一段故事。晋灵公时，权臣屠岸贾为剪灭异己赵盾，先派勇士行刺，后以神獒扑杀，终于迫使赵盾流落野外、不知所终。屠氏又假传灵公之命逼死赵盾之子、灵公驹马赵朔。后公主生下遗腹子，请求赵朔门客兼友人程婴将孤儿带出宫外抚养成人。奉屠氏之命把守公主府门的将军韩厥出于正义和同情放走程婴及赵氏孤儿。为斩草除根，屠氏再传灵公之命欲将晋国半岁之下一月之上的婴儿悉数斩杀。程婴投奔赵盾同僚公孙杵臼。两人商议决定，以程婴亲生儿子冒充赵氏孤儿，由年迈的公孙带着假赵氏孤儿受死，正值壮年的程婴则留下来担当护孤抚孤的重任。后程婴因“揭发”公孙收留“赵氏孤儿”有功，被屠氏留下做门客，其子(实为赵氏孤儿) 也被屠氏收为义子。二十年后，程婴将屠氏诛杀赵氏家族一事告知赵氏孤儿。此时已为悼公朝。在上卿魏降的帮助下，赵氏孤儿杀屠氏，诛其族。悼公赐赵氏孤儿姓赵名武，袭父祖爵位。程婴、公孙、韩厥等均受朝廷嘉奖。

《中》剧时间已改在宋末元初。南宋末年，成吉思汗攻陷北京。宋皇临死前向大臣张惕托孤。成吉思汗闻讯后四处搜捕大宋遗孤，以求斩草除根。张惕苦思救孤良策，最后决定以亲生儿子冒名顶替大宋遗孤。其妻伊达梅虽然支持丈夫，但强烈的母爱又使她拼死反对丈夫的决定，最后她竟向成吉思汗道出实情，以求保住儿子一命。早年成吉思汗流落北京时曾向伊氏求婚，遭拒绝，现在便以其夫、其子及大宋遗孤三人的性命为要挟，再次向伊氏求婚。关键时刻，伊氏以国家和民族利益为重，大义凛然，毫不犹豫地拒绝了征服者的逼婚，并积极投入救孤活动。与此同时，已被捕入狱的张惕面对征服者的严刑酷打，始终不改初衷。伊氏在救孤失败后也被捕入狱，决定与丈夫一同自刎以报宋皇以谢天下。成吉思汗又震惊又羞愧，终于下令赦免张惕夫妇，并收大宋遗孤及张惕之子为义子。剧本以成吉思汗恳求张惕留在宫中以中华民族的高度文明教化元朝百官而结束。

两剧叙事的差异：1.故事发生的时间不同。春秋时代改为宋末元初。2.故事中心情节不同。《赵》剧在救孤保孤之外，着重写了报仇雪冤(这从该剧全名《赵氏孤儿大报仇》或《赵氏孤儿冤报冤》可反映出来)；《中》剧则在救孤保孤之外，着力写了成吉思汗的态度转变。3.故事中牵扯的人物身份不同。《赵》剧的主人公是托孤友人(或是名义上的门客，或为故交)，《中》剧的主人公是托孤者的臣属；他们的对手也不一样，前者是乱官贼子，后者则是一朝君王。此外，两剧的“孤儿”身份也有区别，《赵》剧中的是一官宦之子，《中》剧里的则是皇帝血脉，象征意味也不一样。

两者主题迥然有别。《赵》剧的主题就是歌颂“义”、“仁”等儒家传统美德。《赵》表现的“义”有三种情况：一是基于“是非之心”的忠义，即痛限奸乱、保护忠良。在剧中，赵、屠两个家族已分别被符号化忠、奸的代表，如赵氏家族被尊为“报主的忠良”(楔子)，“忠孝的公卿”(第一折)，而屠岸贾则被定位为“蠹国的奸臣”(楔子)、“损害忠良”、“挠乱朝纲”的“奸贼，’(第五折)。[3]正因如此，参与保护赵氏家族的人都成了忠义之士。殿前太尉提弥明在赵盾被屠岸贾的神獒追赶扑咬之际出手相救，便是“恼”于屠氏残害忠良(楔子)；退隐老臣公孙杵臼拼死救孤，则是不满屠氏“不廉不公，不孝不忠”，感佩“凭着赵家枝叶千年永，晋国山河百二雄”(第二折)。二是出于“羞恶之心”的道义，即有恩报恩，有仇报仇。赵盾在提弥明帮助下匆忙逃出王宫，却不料自己的车马早被屠氏摘了二马，去了一轮，危急时刻，壮士灵辄一臂扶轮一手策马救了他。灵辄救人就是为了报赵盾的箪食活命之恩(楔子)。程婴救孤的直接原因便是“报赵附马平日优待之恩”(第二折)。这两个都是知恩图报。而赵武长大后报仇雪冤则是有仇报仇的典型。其实，赵武的复仇已被涂上了为民除奸的油彩。晋悼公和上卿魏绛支持赵武将屠氏“阖门良贱，龆龀不留”，因为屠氏“损害忠良，百搬地挠乱朝纲”(第五折)。三是源于朋友之“信”的情义，即不忘故交，有难必救。公孙先生舍身救孤，除了一片忠义之心外，另外一个重要原因就是讲朋友信义，因为他与孤儿之祖父赵盾曾为一殿之臣，“最相交厚”(第二折)，结过“刎颈交”(第三折)。忠义、道义、情义，都是“义”。

《赵》剧体现的“仁”，指基于“恻隐之心”的仁爱。从剧情来看，它包括对弱者的同情和对天下人的博爱。屠岸贾麾下将军韩厥之所以放走赵氏孤儿，一个重要原因就是他对弱小者的同情。他既可怜赵家“三百口亲丁尽不存，着谁来雪这终天恨”，又百般怜惜被藏在草药箱里的赵氏孤儿：“见孤儿额颅上汗津津，口角头乳食喷。骨碌碌睁一双眼儿将咱认，悄促促箱儿里似把声吞。紧绑绑难展足，窄狭狭怎翻身”。为了这份同情，他甚至宁愿自刎也要放走孤儿(第一折)。程婴救孤，也是出于对赵氏家族的深深同情：“可怜见赵家三百余口，诛尽杀绝”，“赵家门户实堪哀，’(第一折)。而他以自己亲生儿子顶替赵氏孤儿，则不仅仅是同情赵氏孤儿或赵氏家族，更重要的是为了“救晋国小儿之命”(第二折)，因而体现出沉甸甸的一份博爱之心。

《中》的主题也宣扬了《赵》剧所宣扬的儒家伦理。该剧主要通过张惕夫妇的所作所为歌颂了忠义思想，即对君主、对祖国的挚爱与忠诚。张惕在自己性命尚且难保之际毅然地接受宋皇的托孤任务，并献出亲生儿子顶替大宋遗孤，后又打算以自刎报答宋皇，这是何等的忠义!不可否认，他的“忠”有“愚忠”的成分，但谁又能否认，在此时的张惕心目中，宋皇以及遗孤就是大宋就是祖国，所以他对宋皇对遗孤的忠实际上就是对大宋对祖国的忠。正是这股忠义之气，使他经受住了各种威逼利诱和严刑酷打，正如成吉思汗手下一名将领所言：“什么危险都不能使他动摇，/什么美言都打动不了他的心。/……他冷眼望着酷刑，/嘴里重复的只有责任和正义。”(第4幕第2场)[4]这里的“责任和义务”就是作为臣子、作为宋民对君主对祖国的忠义之心。张惕之妻伊达梅同样也体现了忠义美德。从某种意义上说，她身上体现出来的忠义更有分量也更感人，因为她的内心里存在“情”与“义”的冲突。一方面，她爱儿子，不愿丈夫用他顶替别人受死；她也爱丈夫，对丈夫忠贞不二，另一方面，她也忠于大宋忠于祖国。当鱼和熊掌二者不可兼得时，她最终选择了“熊掌”，让对大宋对祖国的忠义战胜了个人感情。

《中》剧还体现了《赵》剧未涉及到的两方面内容：一是儒家的修为学说，一是儒家的仁德政治。儒家重视伦理，更重视修身养性，并将它与治国平天下联在一起，提出修(身)齐(家)治(国)平(天下)之说，称为“大学”。该剧主要通过成吉思汗之口宣讲了儒家的“大学”观。成吉思汗耳闻目睹张惕夫妇令人感佩的言行之后，恍然大悟似地说道：“我本不知凡夫俗子也能修身养性。/你们教会了我，/使我懂得了这至高的荣誉。”(第5幕第6场)这个征服者的话不只表达了他对儒家学说的顶礼膜拜，也表明他对儒家道德切实可行的特点和“人皆可以为尧舜”的道理的领悟。

儒家提倡的仁德政治主张，是通过成吉思汗的感受表现出来的。张惕在严刑酷打面前不仅没有屈服，反而表现出惊人的自信，难怪那些行刑人会觉得：“他无视我们的胜利，那讲话的语调/就如同他是法官，向我们传授着法律。”(第4幕第2场)也难怪成吉思汗会喟然长叹：“胜利使我统治你们、登上王位，/头罩光环却使我深感羞愧。/我枉为名将，/徒然的战功累累；/你们使我自惭形秽，/只愿能与你们相配。”(第5幕第6场)不可一世的征服者终于低下高傲的头颅，诚恳地表示：“你们战胜了武力，/它该向你们深表敬意；/我将成为榜样，/身为统治者，我武器在手，/归顺于你们的法律。”(同上)在这里，伏公让元太祖像一个小学生一样认识到自己的错误，明白武力和强权的局限性。成吉思汗臣服的其实就是儒家的仁德政治即王道。孟子认为，治国之道有王道和霸道之别：“以力假仁者霸。……以德假仁者王。……以力服人者，非心服也；……以德服人者，中心悦而诚服也。”(《孟子·公孙丑上》)王道与霸道孰高孰下自不待言，不过，在伏公这里，王道、霸道己有另一层含义，前者是文明、进步的标志，后者是野蛮、落后的象征。深受儒学熏陶的张惕代表的是文明，成吉思汗率领的游牧民族代表的是野蛮，所以作为被征服者的张惕在敌人面前镇静自如、俨若“法官”，而身为胜利者的成吉思汗们反而会自渐形秽、甘心臣服。也正是认识到这一层，成吉思汗才会觉得“儒”化自己的统治队伍、教化天下百姓是当务之急。所以他才会不仅饶张惕不死，反而尊其为“最权威的教官”，恳求张惕：“请留在我的宫中教授法律；/用理性、公正和习俗教化百官，/使他们都像你一样高尚知礼，/被征服的民族统治征服者，/以你们的智慧统帅勇气，将国家治理。”(同上)

两剧都宣扬和肯定了儒家伦理；不同的是，《赵》剧的主题比较集中，而《中》剧则丰富得多，它除了宣扬儒家伦理外，亦体现了儒家的修为学说尤其是它的政治哲学。当然，《中》剧宣扬儒家道德观的力度远远赶不上《赵》剧。

两者主题大相径庭，是由伏公的三种需要引起的。它们是：(一)褒扬“孔子道德”、贬抑基督教伦理的需要；(二)标举“文明战胜野蛮”这一启蒙观点的需要；(三)宣扬开明君主制的理念的需要。下面主要结合伏公在创作《中》剧之前发表的两部思想史著作即《人类思想史新提纲》(1745年连载于《法兰西水星》)杂志，后成《风俗论》的前几章)和《路易十四时代》(1751)加以阐述。

伏公评价《赵》剧：它“是一篇宝贵的大作，它使人了解中国精神。”[5]如前所述，《赵》剧主要宣扬儒家伦理，伏公却认为它在宣扬“中国精神”。“中国精神”即中国文化思想之精髓，显然不单是儒家思想所能概括的。在两者之间划等号，只能理解为伏公对儒学的偏爱，对儒家伦理的偏爱。伏公的这份偏爱还可以从另外一个方面看出来。他曾在致友人的信中多次提到自己创作《中》剧的目的是为了在舞台上“传授孔子道德”，并称自己这部作品为“五幕孔子的道德戏”，[6]我们前面已分析了《中》剧的主题，除了讲儒家伦理外，还涉及到了儒家的修为思想和政治观，伏公却把这些一古脑儿称为“孔子道德”，偏爱之情溢于言表。

伏公对儒家伦理的偏爱基本上是承袭16至18世纪来华传教士的态度。这些传教士普遍认为：孔子及其学说着力“宣讲道德修养”，而且这种“道德规范是常人可以实践的，它与政治、现实紧密相联”。[7]伏公也称孔子为“最早的伦理大师”和“教导后辈谨守美德的先贤古哲”，对儒家强调晚辈对尊长叩头跪拜、节日祭奠祖宗则赞叹有加，称之为“最合乎自然而又最神圣的法则”。[8]李泽厚先生曾说：“孔子和儒学一直强调以‘亲子之情’(‘孝’)，作为最后实在的伦常关系以建立‘人’——‘仁’的根本，并由亲子、君臣、兄弟、夫妇、朋友‘五伦’关系，辐射交织而组成和建构各种社会性——宗教性感情，作为‘本体’所在。”[9]伏公早在将近两个半世纪以前就已体悟到了儒家伦理的自然性以及与之密切相关的切实可行性或可操作性，真是不简单。

与对孔子及儒家伦理颇多溢美之辞形成鲜明对比的是，伏公对基督教伦理则颇多微辞。他认为基督教鼓吹盲目信仰即宗教迷信，“简直是人类理性的耻辱”[10]；他指责基督徒的宗教狂热，认为基督教会“捧着和平之神的手使人鲜血流淌，生命牺牲”。[11]这样的宗教哪有伦理可言？更何况它宣扬的压根儿是一种虚幻的伦理!哪里比得上儒家强调通过平常的行为和礼节来实践伦理来得实在![12]正是出于对基督教伦理的贬抑和对儒家伦理的偏爱，伏公才会把《赵》剧宣扬的儒家伦理升格为“中国精神”，而把《中》剧表现丰富的儒家思想“压缩”成“孔子道德”。

作为法国乃至欧洲启蒙运动的领袖人物，伏公极力宣扬理性、科学和艺术的功用，认为文明(理性、科学和艺术等的集合物)必然战胜野蛮(愚味、落后的代名词)。伏公用中华文明文化两次同化外族入侵者(蒙古人和满人，引者)的史实论证自己的观点。在他看来，以儒家思想为基础的中华文明文化正是人类文明的杰出代表，因为它一方面强调理性，尊崇自然法则即后辈对长辈的尊敬，中国人的“礼节可以在整个民族树立克制和正直的品行，使民风既庄重又文雅”；[13]一方面又具有人性的内涵，“提倡不念旧恶、不忘善行、友爱、谦恭”，因而“合乎人情”。[14]中华文明文化两次同化征服者，足以“说明理性与天才对盲目、野蛮的暴力所具有的优越性”，[15]换言之，足以证明“文明战胜野蛮”的观点的正确性。如果说这是伏公第一次关注中国元朝的话，那么阅读马若瑟神父的《赵》剧法译本则使伏公再一次关注中国元朝：“这个中国剧本作于14世纪，就是在成吉思汗朝；这又是一个新的证据，证明鞑靼的胜利者不改变战败民族的风俗；他们保护着在中国建立起来的一切艺术；他们接受着它的一切法规。”[16]正是基于这种认识，伏公在创作《中》剧时才只袭用《赵》剧的题材，而在时间、人物和具体情节的安排上全都推倒重来，让它们一一与元朝和成吉思汗“沾亲带故”。至于伏公笔下的人物，开口“责任和正义”，闭口“理性”和“公正”，已全然不是宣讲儒家思想的中国人，倒更象法国乃至欧洲启蒙思想家的派头。这些都清清楚楚地昭示了伏公对《赵》剧的“背叛”和对儒学的“歪曲”。

在伏公看来，王权是当时唯一能与教权相抗衡的力量，而且也是国家强盛，社会进步的根本保证，因此他主张君主制。不过他主张的是开明君主制，他心目中理想的君主是讲理性、讲宽容、遵守法律且热爱科学和艺术的“哲学家国王”。在他心目中，中国的帝王政体正是开明君主制，因为中国人和中国政府“最深刻了解、最精心培育、最致力完善的东西是道德和法律”，“儿女孝敬父亲是国家的基础”，父权观念“把这个幅员广大的国家组成一个大家庭”；法律在中国的作用很大，除了治罪之外，它还被用来“褒奖善行”。[17]与此同时，开明君主也只有在中国才能找到，如“以善良仁慈、行高德美而驰名遐迩”的康熙[18]，以及“爱法律、重公益，超过父王”的雍正，[19]就都是这样的“哲学家国王”。现在，伏公又用自己的笔塑造了一位开明君主的形象，即能深刻反省自己的错误因而讲理性，讲宽容，能尊重他人优点因而接受文明和法律的成吉思汗。梁启超称赞伏公说：“伏尔泰以其诚恳之气，清高之思，美妙之文，能运他国文明新思想，移植于本国，以造福于同胞”。[20]事实上，法国乃至欧洲的启蒙思想能成功地“汲取了中国传统人本主义思想的精华”，正是多亏了伏公。[21]

[参考文献]

[1]伏尔泰在《中国孤儿》之“作者献辞”里说：“我是不久前读了马若瑟神父译的《赵氏孤儿》一剧后，萌发了创作此剧的念头的。”伏尔泰·致黎世留公爵[J].中国比较文学，1988. (4)

[2]冯友兰.中国哲学简史[M].北京：北京大学出版社，1985. 49

[3]纪君祥.赵氏孤儿大报仇[A].全元曲(第4卷)[Z].石家庄：河北教育出版社；以下该剧引文均出自此版本，只注折。

[4]该剧引文均引自：孟华.伏尔泰与孔子[M].北京：新华出版社，1993. 115 —122

[5][15][16]伏尔泰.致黎世留公爵[J].中国比较文学，1998. ( 4)

[6][21]孟华.伏尔泰与孔子[M].北京：新华出版社，1993. 121. 17

[7]此处采用孟华教授的说法。同[6] ， 78。

[8][10][11][18] [19]伏尔泰.路易十四时代[M].北京：商务印书馆，1997.595，517，518，596，600.

[9]李泽厚.论语今读[M].合肥：安徽文艺出版社，1998. 18.

[12]关于这一点，法国当代汉学家谢和耐(1921—)阐述得十分清楚。他说：“基督教的伦理涉及到了一个超越一切的上帝。因而按照中国人的判断来看是起源于最遥远最不可及的事物，也就是上帝的至德。……相反，按照中国人的观念，人类只有通过遵守礼仪方可发展其自身中的善之本性。”谢和耐，中国和基督教[M].上海：上海古籍出版社，1991. 235.

[13][14][17]伏尔泰.风俗论(上册)[M].北京：商务印书馆，1996. 217

[20]梁启超.论学术之势力左右世界[A].饮冰室文集之六[C]第115页，饮冰室合集(第1册)[C].北京：中华书局，1989.

PRESIDENT OBAMA: Thank you. Thank you so much. Thank you. Thank you, General Caslen, for that introduction. General Trainor, General Clarke, faculty and staff at West Point, you have been outstanding stewards of this proud institution and outstanding mentors for the newest officers in the United States Army.

美国总统奥巴马：谢谢！非常感谢！谢谢！谢谢卡斯兰将军的介绍！特雷纳将军、克拉克将军、西点军校的教职工们，你们一直以来都是这所令人自豪的学府的优秀管理者，也是美国陆军新晋军官的杰出导师。

I’d like to acknowledge the Army’s leadership -- General McHugh -- Secretary McHugh, General Odierno, as well as Senator Jack Reed who is here and a proud graduate of West Point himself. To the class of 2014, I congratulate you on taking your place on the Long Gray Line.

我要向陆军领导层表示感谢，包括陆军部长麦克休将军以及参谋长奥迪耶诺将军，同时也要感谢到场的杰克•里德参议员，他是西点军校引以为荣的毕业生之一。2014级的毕业生们，祝贺你们承接了西点军魂的使命。

Among you is the first all-female command team: Erin Mauldin and Austen Boroff. In Calla Glavin, you have a Rhodes Scholar, and Josh Herbeck proves that West Point accuracy extends beyond the three point line. (Laughter.)

 在你们当中，有美国首支女子指挥团队，包括艾琳•墨登和奥斯丁•波洛夫。卡拉•格莱文展现了一位罗兹学者的风采，而乔希•赫贝克则证明了西点的精准度远在三分线之外。（笑声）

To the entire class, let me reassure you in these final hours at West Point, as commander in chief, I hereby absolve all cadets who are on restriction for minor conduct offenses. (Laughter, applause.)

 全体学员们，请安心度过你们在西点的最后时光，我以最高统帅的名义在此赦免所有因犯轻罪而关禁闭的学员。（笑声、掌声）

Let me just say that nobody ever did that for me when I was in school.

容我说一句，我当学生的时候，可从未有人这么做过。

I know you join me in extending a word of thanks to your families. Joe DeMoss, whose son James is graduating, spoke for a whole lot of parents when he wrote me a letter about the sacrifices you’ve made. “Deep inside,” he wrote, “we want to explode with pride at what they are committing to do in the service of our country.” Like several graduates, James is a combat veteran, and I would ask all of us here today to stand and pay tribute not only to the veterans among us, but to the more than 2.5 million Americans who have served in Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as their families. (Applause.)

我知道，你们和我一样都要向自己的家人表示感谢。乔•狄摩斯是本届毕业生詹姆斯的父亲，他给我来信讲诉你们所作出的牺牲，也道出了许多父母的心声。他写道：“在我们的内心深处，我们为他们立志报效国家而感到无比自豪。”和多位毕业生一样，詹姆斯也是位战场老兵。我请今天在座的各位起立，向我们当中的老兵，也向250多万曾在伊拉克和阿富汗服役的美国人及其家属致敬。（掌声）

It is a particularly useful time for America to reflect on those who’ve sacrificed so much for our freedom, a few days after Memorial Day. You are the first class to graduate since 9/11 who may not be sent into combat in Iraq or Afghanistan. (Cheers, applause.)

这是继数天前阵亡将士纪念日后的又一个极有意义的时刻，让美国人民得以回想那些为我们的自由作出巨大牺牲的英雄。你们将是自911恐怖袭击以来，第一届不会被派到伊拉克或阿富汗参战的毕业生。（欢呼声、掌声）

When I first spoke at West Point in 2009, we still had more than 100,000 troops in Iraq. We were preparing to surge in Afghanistan. Our counterterrorism efforts were focused on al-Qaida’s core leadership -- those who had carried out the 9/11 attacks. And our nation was just beginning a long climb out of the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression.

2009年，我首次在西点发表演讲时，我们仍有10万多名士兵驻扎在伊拉克，也正准备增兵阿富汗。而我们的反恐重心则是基地组织的核心头目——正是他们发动了911恐怖袭击。此外，我们的国家正开始一段摆脱大萧条以来最严重经济危机的漫长历程。

Four and a half years later, as you graduate, the landscape has changed. We have removed our troops from Iraq. We are winding down our war in Afghanistan. Al-Qaida’s leadership on the border region between Pakistan and Afghanistan has been decimated, and Osama bin Laden is no more. (Cheers, applause.) And through it all, we’ve refocused our investments in what has always been a key source of American strength: a growing economy that can provide opportunity for everybody who’s willing to work hard and take responsibility here at home.

 四年半以后，就在你们毕业之际，情况已发生了转变。我们已从伊拉克撤军，正逐步结束阿富汗的战争。潜伏在巴基斯坦和阿富汗边境地区的基地组织头目已被斩草除根，而奥萨马•本•拉登也早已命丧黄泉。（欢呼声、掌声）在经历了这一切之后，我们又将关注重心调整到美国实力的重要源头上来，这个源头就是不断发展的经济，为每一个愿意努力工作并愿意承担起家国责任的人提供机会。

In fact, by most measures America has rarely been stronger relative to the rest of the world. Those who argue otherwise -- who suggest that America is in decline or has seen its global leadership slip away -- are either misreading history or engaged in partisan politics.

事实上，与世界上其他国家相比，美国在很多方面都处于强势地位。有些人持不同观点，他们认为美国正在衰弱或正失去世界的领导地位，这些人不是对历史存在误读，就是陷入了党派政治的泥潭。

Think about it. Our military has no peer. The odds of a direct threat against us by any nation are low, and do not come close to the dangers we faced during the Cold War. Meanwhile, our economy remains the most dynamic on Earth, our businesses the most innovative. Each year, we grow more energy independent. From Europe to Asia, we are the hub of alliances unrivaled in the history of nations.

你们想一想，我们的军队天下无敌，任何国家对我们构成直接威胁的几率极小，而且与我们在冷战时期所面临的危险相差甚远。同时，我们的经济活力仍居世界第一，企业的创新性也名列前茅。我们的能源独立性都在逐年增强。从欧洲到亚洲，我们是各国有史以来无人能敌的联盟轴心。

America continues to attract striving immigrants. The values of our founding inspire leaders in parliaments and new movements in public squares around the globe. And when a typhoon hits the Philippines, or schoolgirls are kidnapped in Nigeria, or masked men occupy a building in Ukraine, it is America that the world looks to for help. (Applause.) So the United States is and remains the one indispensable nation. That has been true for the century past, and it will be true for the century to come.

美国将继续吸纳奋发图强的外国移民。我们的建国理念激励着各国议会的领导人，也激励着世界各地在公共广场上发起的新运动。当台风袭击菲律宾的时候，当尼日利亚女学生遭到绑架的时候，当蒙面歹徒攻占乌克兰政府大楼的时候，全世界都翘首以待美国的援助之手。（掌声）因此，美国始终是一个无可取代的国家，上个世纪如此，下个世纪亦是如此。

But the world is changing with accelerating speed. This presents opportunity, but also new dangers. We know all too well, after 9/11, just how technology and globalization has put power once reserved for states in the hands of individuals, raising the capacity of terrorists to do harm.

但是，如今的世界瞬息万变。这为我们带来了机遇，也带来了新的危险。911恐怖袭击事件让我们清楚地认识到，科技和全球化发展是如何让原本由国家掌控的权力落入个人之手，令恐怖分子为非作歹的。

Russia’s aggression towards former Soviet states unnerves capitals in Europe while China’s economic rise and military reach worries its neighbors.

不久前，俄罗斯派兵入侵前苏联加盟共和国——乌克兰，这一军事动作牵动欧洲各国神经，与此同时，中国经济崛起及其军事走向则引发邻国担忧。

From Brazil to India, rising middle classes compete with us, and governments seek a greater say in global forums. And even as developing nations embrace democracy and market economies, 24-hour news and social media makes it impossible to ignore the continuation of sectarian conflicts, failing states and popular uprisings that might have received only passing notice a generation ago.

从巴西到印度，新兴中产阶级在与我们展开竞争，此外，各国谋求在国际事务中争取更多话语权。尽管发展中国家拥护民主、认同市场经济，但全天候新闻以及社交媒体报道使得人们无法对接连发生在这些国家的派系冲突、国家衰败与民众暴动等事件视而不见。然而，这些对于上一代人而言，只能引来他们的“侧目”罢了。

It will be your generation’s task to respond to this new world. The question we face, the question each of you will face, is not whether America will lead but how we will lead, not just to secure our peace and prosperity but also extend peace and prosperity around the globe.

如何能在新形势下有所作为的重担就要落在你们这一代的肩上了。摆在我们面前的问题，不是美国是否处在领导地位，而是她将如何引领各国；不只是美国能否实现繁荣发展，而是她如何能在全球范围内“播撒”和平与繁荣的“种子”，而这也是你们将来要面对的问题。

Now, this question isn’t new. At least since George Washington served as commander in chief, there have been those who warned against foreign entanglements that do not touch directly on our security or economic well-being.

这个问题并非新鲜。至少，自乔治•华盛顿就任总司令——即美国爆发独立战争以来，就存在一些警告的声音，表示反对美国卷入与本国国家安全或经济福祉无直接关联的外部纷争之中。

Today, according to self-described realists, conflicts in Syria or Ukraine or the Central African Republic are not ours to solve. And not surprisingly, after costly wars and continuing challenges here at home, that view is shared by many Americans.

现在，那些自诩为现实主义者的人认为，美国无需理会发生在叙利亚、乌克兰，以及中非共和国的冲突。的确，在经受了战争以及来自国内的多重挑战之后，这种观点为许多美国人所认同，这并不意外。

A different view, from interventionists from the left and right, says that we ignore these conflicts at our own peril, that America’s willingness to apply force around the world is the ultimate safeguard against chaos, and America’s failure to act in the face of Syrian brutality or Russian provocations not only violates our conscience, but invites escalating aggression in the future.

然而，干涉主义者对此持不同观点。他们认为，无视这些冲突最终会危及我们自身，美国在全球充当“世界警察”角色的意愿能够最彻底地保卫世界安全，使其免于陷入混乱。而若美国对叙利亚的暴乱或俄罗斯的挑衅撒手不管、无所作为的话，那么这不仅违背我们的良心，也会使得这些行径在未来愈演愈烈。

And each side can point to history to support its claims, but I believe neither view fully speaks to the demands of this moment. It is absolutely true that in the 21st century, American isolationism is not an option. We don’t have a choice to ignore what happens beyond our borders. If nuclear materials are not secure, that poses a danger to American citizens.

尽管双方的观点从历史角度看都成立，但我认为他们并没有充分反映当前形势下的需求。显然，对21世纪的美国而言，孤立主义行不通。我们无法对发生在世界其他地区的事情漠然视之。例如，如果核燃料不安全，那么它就会威及美国人民的生命。

As the Syrian civil war spills across borders, the capacity of battle-hardened extremist groups to come after us only increases. Regional aggression that goes unchecked, whether in southern Ukraine or the South China Sea or anywhere else in the world, will ultimately impact our allies, and could draw in our military. We can’t ignore what happens beyond our boundaries.

随着叙利亚内战战火跨越边境，受战争洗礼的极端组织攻击美国的能力也在增强。地区冲突接踵而至，无论是在乌克兰南部地区、南海亦或是世界其他地方，如果我们对此坐视不管，最终这将危及美国盟友的利益，美军也会卷入其中。因此，我们必须时刻关注外界事态。

And beyond these narrow rationales, I believe we have a real stake -- abiding self-interest -- in making sure our children and our grandchildren grow up in a world where schoolgirls are not kidnapped; where individuals aren’t slaughtered because of tribe or faith or political belief.

此外，跳出这些狭隘的理论框架来看，我认为大家还存在着一个真正的共同关切——持久的个人利益，那就是要始终确保我们的子孙后代成长在这样一个世界当中，在那里，人们不会因为种族、信仰或政治理念的迥异而劫持女学生或滥杀无辜。

I believe that a world of greater freedom and tolerance is not only a moral imperative; it also helps keep us safe.

我认为，建设一个更加自由及包容的世界不仅在道德上势在必行，而且有助于维护我们自身安全。

But to say that we have an interest in pursuing peace and freedom beyond our borders is not to say that every problem has a military solution. Since World War II, some of our most costly mistakes came not from our restraint but from our willingness to rush into military adventures without thinking through the consequences, without building international support and legitimacy for our action, without leveling with the American people about the sacrifices required. Tough talk often draws headlines, but war rarely conforms to slogans. As General Eisenhower, someone with hard-earned knowledge on this subject, said at this ceremony in 1947, “War is mankind’s most tragic and stupid folly; to seek or advise its deliberate provocation is a black crime against all men.”

尽管我们有意向在全球倡导和平与自由，但这并不意味着我们要借助军事手段来解决每个问题。二战结束以来，我们所犯的那些严重的错误，皆源自我们倾向于以诉诸武力的方式来解决问题，而对后果考虑不周、缺乏国际支持及法律支持，也没有向美国人民交代他们需要作出的牺牲，以使他们心中有数。虽然强硬的表态时常占据报纸头条，但战争却很少与口号“步调一致”。正如对这个问题深有体会的艾森豪威尔将军（General Eisenhower），于1947年在西点军校毕业典礼上所说的那样：“战争是人类最悲惨、最愚笨的蠢行，无论是蓄意挑起战争，还是为其献计献策，这都是对全人类犯下的滔天罪行。”

Like Eisenhower, this generation of men and women in uniform know all too well the wages of war, and that includes those of you here at West Point. Four of the service members who stood in the audience when I announced the surge of our forces in Afghanistan gave their lives in that effort. A lot more were wounded.

与他一样，这一代的军人——无论男女，都对战争理解深刻。这其中也包括了你们西点毕业生。在我宣布增兵阿富汗时，听众当中的4名服役人员后来就在那里壮烈牺牲。此外，还有许多西点士兵受伤。

I believe America’s security demanded those deployments. But I am haunted by those deaths. I am haunted by those wounds. And I would betray my duty to you, and to the country we love, if I sent you into harm’s way simply because I saw a problem somewhere in the world that needed to be fixed, or because I was worried about critics who think military intervention is the only way for America to avoid looking weak.

我认为，出于维护美国国家安全的考虑，这些军事部署是很有必要的。但是，这些伤亡者的英魂和伤痛一直萦绕在我的脑海、令我难安。如果我将你们派上战场，仅仅是因为世界某地出现问题需要处理，或是担心批评家会将军事不作为视作是美国软弱的表现，那么，我就违背了自己对你们、对这个我们所爱国家的职责了。

Here’s my bottom line: America must always lead on the world stage. If we don’t, no one else will. The military that you have joined is, and always will be, the backbone of that leadership. But U.S. military action cannot be the only -- or even primary -- component of our leadership in every instance. Just because we have the best hammer does not mean that every problem is a nail.

我的底线是：美国必须在世界范围保持领导力。如果我们不能，没人能。你们所加入的美军，永远都是美国领导世界的中坚力量。但是美国的军事行动不是我们展现领导力的唯一方式，更不是主要部分。因为虽然我们有最好的锤子(美军)，但并不意味着每个问题都是钉子。

And because the costs associated with military action are so high, you should expect every civilian leader -- and especially your commander in chief -- to be clear about how that awesome power should be used. So let me spend the rest of my time describing my vision for how the United States of America, and our military, should lead in the years to come, for you will be part of that leadership.

因为军事行动代价极大，所以你们应该期望每个平民领袖——尤其是你们的总司令——清楚如何使用这一令人生畏的力量。所以，让我用剩下的时间来描述一下我的想法：关于美国和美军在未来几年应怎样领导世界，而你们将会成为领导世界力量的一部分。

First, let me repeat a principle I put forward at the outset of my presidency: The United States will use military force, unilaterally if necessary, when our core interests demand it -- when our people are threatened; when our livelihoods are at stake; when the security of our allies is in danger.

首先，让我重申一下我在就任总统时提出的原则：当我们的核心利益需要的时候——我们的人民受到威胁、生计受到威胁、盟友的安全处于危险之中——如果有必要，美国将单方面使用军事力量。

In these circumstances, we still need to ask tough questions about whether our actions are proportional and effective and just. International opinion matters, but America should never ask permission to protect our people, our homeland or our way of life. (Applause.)

当然在这些情况下，我们仍然需要扪心自问，我们的行动是否合适有效公正。虽然国际舆论很重要，但是在保护我们的人民、祖国和生活方式这些问题上，美国不需要得到别人的许可。(掌声)

On the other hand, when issues of global concern do not pose a direct threat to the United States, when such issues are at stake, when crises（crisis 复数） arise that stir our conscience or push the world in a more dangerous direction but do not directly threaten us, then the threshold for military action must be higher. In such circumstances, we should not go it alone. Instead, we must mobilize allies and partners to take collective action. We have to broaden our tools to include diplomacy and development, sanctions and isolation, appeals to international law, and, if just, necessary and effective, multilateral military action. In such circumstances, we have to work with others because collective action in these circumstances is more likely to succeed, more likely to be sustained, less likely to lead to costly mistakes.

另一方面，当引起世界关注但没有直接威胁到美国利益的危机产生时，当这些问题亟待解决时，当能触动我们的良心或推动世界向更危险的方向发展但不对美国构成直接威胁的危机出现时，我们更不能轻易采取军事行动。在这种情况下，我们不应该单打独斗。相反，我们必须动员盟友和合作伙伴采取集体行动。我们应该广泛使用各种手段，包括外交和发展、制裁和孤立、诉诸于国际法，甚至在必要情况下采取多边军事行动。在这些情况下，我们必须与其他国家合作，因为集体行动更容易成功，持续性强，还可以减少代价惨痛的错误。”

This leads to my second point. For the foreseeable future, the most direct threat to America, at home and abroad, remains terrorism, but a strategy that involves invading every country that harbors terrorist networks is naive and unsustainable. I believe we must shift our counterterrorism strategy, drawing on the successes and shortcomings of our experience in Iraq and Afghanistan, to more effectively partner with countries where terrorist networks seek a foothold.

这引出了我的第二个观点。在可预见的未来，不管国内还是国外，对美国最直接的威胁仍是恐怖主义。但是，那种对每个包庇恐怖主义组织的国家都采取进攻手段的战略未免过于天真，也不可能长期进行。我认为，我们必须从伊拉克和阿富汗问题上汲取经验和教训，将美国打击恐怖主义的战略转变为与那些国内有恐怖组织基地的国家进行有效的伙伴合作。

And the need for a new strategy reflects the fact that today’s principal threat no longer comes from a centralized al-Qaida leadership. Instead it comes from decentralized al-Qaida affiliates and extremists, many with agendas focused in the countries where they operate. And this lessens the possibility of large-scale 9/11-style attacks against the homeland, but it heightens the danger of U.S. personnel overseas being attacked, as we saw in Benghazi. It heightens the danger to less defensible targets, as we saw in a shopping mall in Nairobi. So we have to develop a strategy that matches this diffuse threat, one that expands our reach without sending forces that stretch our military too thin or stir up local resentments.

并且，对新战略的需求反映出一个事实：今天我们主要的威胁不再是来自于基地组织的集中领导，而是来自分散的“基地”组织分支机构和极端分子，其中很多都在他们从事活动的国家内进行活动。虽然这种情况降低了美国本土遭受大规模9•11式袭击的可能性，但是就像我们在班加西（Benghazi）看到的那样，这会增加美国海外人员遇险的可能性。就像我们在内罗毕（Nairobi）购物商场看到的那样，这还会增加防备薄弱目标遇险的可能性。因此，我们需要制定战略应对这种传播式的威胁，这一战略必须能够在不派遣军队、避免战线过长、避免引发当地不满情绪的前提下扩大我们的影响力。

We need partners to fight terrorists alongside us. And empowering partners is a large part of what we have done and what we are currently doing in Afghanistan. Together with our allies, America struck huge blows against al-Qaida core and pushed back against an insurgency that threatened to overrun the country.

我们需要合作伙伴一起打击恐怖分子。我们在阿富汗已经完成和正在进行的工作，很大一部份是为了增进伙伴的自治能力。在与盟友的共同努力下，美国给基地组织核心造成了沉重的打击，挫败了其试图颠覆国家的叛乱活动。

But sustaining this progress depends on the ability of Afghans to do the job. And that’s why we trained hundreds of thousands of Afghan soldiers and police. Earlier this spring, those forces -- those Afghan forces -- secured an election in which Afghans voted for the first democratic transfer of power in their history. And at the end of this year, a new Afghan president will be in office, and America’s combat mission will be over.

但是，决定这个进程能否持续下去的是阿富汗人民在处理这一问题上的能力。这就是我们训练成千上万的阿富汗士兵和警察的原因。今年春天早些时候，这些部队，这些阿富汗部队保障了选举的进行，阿富汗人为该国史上第一次政权的民主移交进行了投票。今年年底，阿富汗新总统将上任，届时美国作战部队的使命也将完成。（掌声）

Now -- (applause) -- that was an enormous achievement made because of America’s armed forces. But as we move to a train and advise mission in Afghanistan, our reduced presence there allows us to more effectively address emerging threats in the Middle East and North Africa. So earlier this year I asked my national security team to develop a plan for a network of partnerships from South Asia to the Sahel.

现在——(掌声)——这就是美军取得的巨大成就。但是当我们在阿富汗的使命转向训练和顾问时，我们减少驻军以后可以更有效地应对中东和北非新出现的威胁。因此在今年早些时候，我让国家安全事务部门就南亚和萨赫勒地区的合作伙伴关系网制定了一个计划。

Today, as part of this effort, I am calling on Congress to support a new counterterrorism partnerships fund of up to $5 billion, which will allow us to train, build capacity and facilitate partner countries on the front lines. And these resources will give us flexibility to fulfill different missions, including training security forces in Yemen who’ve gone on the offensive against al-Qaida, supporting a multinational force to keep the peace in Somalia, working with European allies to train a functioning security force and border patrol in Libya and facilitating French operations in Mali.

今天，作为我们行动的一部分，我呼吁国会支持通过数额为50亿美元的新反恐合作基金，以帮助我们的同盟伙伴训练军队、提升能力、支援他们的前线。这些资金也让我们又更大的自由度完成各项任务。这些任务包括：为打击基地组织的也门政府训练安全部队以支持多国部队维护索马里地区和平，同欧洲盟友一起在利比亚训练出合格的安全部队和边防军，以及协助法国在马里的行动。 

A critical focus of this effort will be the ongoing crisis in Syria. As frustrating as it is, there are no easy answers there, no military solution that can eliminate the terrible suffering anytime soon. As president, I made a decision that we should not put American troops into the middle of this increasingly sectarian civil war, and I believe that is the right decision. But that does not mean we shouldn’t help the Syrian people stand up against a dictator who bombs and starves his own people. And in helping those who fight for the right of all Syrians to choose their own future, we are also pushing back against the growing number of extremists who find safe haven in the chaos.

我们努力的重中之重是叙利亚危机。令人沮丧的是，解决这一危机没有捷径。军事行动不能立马消除当地人民的深重灾难。作为总统，我决定不派遣军队卷入这场愈演愈烈的宗派内战。我相信这是一个正确的决定。但是这并不意味着我们不去帮助叙利亚人民奋起反抗，反对杀害自己人民、让人民挨饿的独裁者。我们协助那些为了叙利亚人民能选择自己未来而奋斗的人，同时也积极打击在越来越多混乱之中找到避风港的极端分子。 

So with the additional resources I’m announcing today, we will step up our efforts to support Syria’s neighbors -- Jordan and Lebanon, Turkey and Iraq -- as they contend with refugees and confront terrorists working across Syria’s borders. I will work with Congress to ramp up support for those in the Syrian opposition who offer the best alternative to terrorists and brutal dictators. And we will continue to coordinate with our friends and allies in Europe and the Arab World to push for a political resolution of this crisis and to make sure that those countries and not just the United States are contributing their fair share of support to the Syrian people.

有了今天我所宣布的资金，我们将会加大力度，支持约旦、黎巴嫩、土耳其、伊拉克这些叙利亚的邻国。因为他们得处理叙利亚边境的难民、并打击叙边境的恐怖活动。我将与国会一起，加大对叙利亚反对派的支持。他们是替代恐怖分子和残忍的独裁者管理叙利亚最好的选择。我们会继续与我们的朋友、欧洲盟友和阿拉伯世界一起合作，推进叙利亚危机的政治解决途径，以保证在支持叙利亚人民的努力中，并非仅有美国在做出努力，其他这些国家也都参与其中。

Let me make one final point about our efforts against terrorism. The partnerships I’ve described do not eliminate the need to take direct action when necessary to protect ourselves. When we have actionable intelligence, that’s what we do, through capture operations, like the one that brought a terrorist involved in the plot to bomb our embassies in 1998 to face justice, or drone strikes, like those we’ve carried out in Yemen and Somalia.

让我就我们在反恐上的努力最后说一点。我所描述的伙伴关系并不排除为了保护美国而采取直接行动的可能。只要我们有可靠的情报，我们就会采取行动，比如1998年在我们大使馆抓捕策划安放炸弹的恐怖分子的行动，又如我们在也门和索马里采取的无人机袭击。

There are times when those actions are necessary and we cannot hesitate to protect our people. But as I said last year, in taking direct action, we must uphold standards that reflect our values. That means taking strikes only when we face a continuing, imminent threat, and only where there is no certainty -- there is near certainty of no civilian casualties, for our actions should meet a simple test: We must not create more enemies than we take off the battlefield.

有时我们必须马上采取行动，因为我们在保护国民方面决不能有半点犹豫。但就像我去年说的，采取直接行动时，我们也要坚守我们的价值观。这就意味着只有我们面临持续的或是眼前的威胁才会进行打击。在没有把握的时候，即便我们几乎能避免平民伤亡，我们的行动也必须达到一个简单的标准，那就是我们不能为了在战场上击毙敌人而树立更多的敌人。

I also believe we must be more transparent about both the basis of our counterterrorism actions and the manner in which they are carried out. We have to be able to explain them publicly, whether it is drone strikes or training partners. I will increasingly turn to our military to take the lead and provide information to the public about our efforts. Our intelligence community has done outstanding work and we have to continue to protect sources and methods, but when we cannot explain our efforts clearly and publicly, we face terrorist propaganda and international suspicion, we erode legitimacy with our partners and our people, and we reduce accountability in our own government.

我也相信我们必须在反恐行动的出发点和具体行动方式方面更为公开。不管是无人机打击或是训练盟友的军队，我们必须向公众解释我们的行动。我将会要求美军带头，向公众提供与我们行动相关的信息。我们的情报机构工作出色，我们必须继续保护我们的信息来源和获取途径。但如果我们不能清楚、公开地解释我们的行动，我们就会面对恐怖分子的大肆宣传和国际社会的质疑，就会在我们伙伴国和人民面前失去合法性，就会失去我们政府的信誉。

And this issue of transparency is directly relevant to a third aspect of American leadership, and that is our effort to strengthen and enforce international order.

公开透明直接与美国领导地位的第三个方面相关，也就是我们强化国际秩序的努力。 

After World War II, America had the wisdom to shape institutions to keep the peace and support human progress -- from NATO and the United Nations, to the World Bank and IMF. These institutions are not perfect, but they have been a force multiplier. They reduce the need for unilateral American action and increase restraint among other nations.

二战之后，美国高瞻远瞩，设立了从北约、联合国到世界银行、国际货币组织一系列机构来维护人类和平、支持人类进步。这些机构并不完美，但是他们将我们的力量放大了数倍。他们减少美国进行单边行动的需要，同时也增强了其他国家之间的制约能力。

Now, just as the world has changed, this architecture must change as well. At the height of the Cold War, President Kennedy spoke about the need for a peace based upon a gradual evolution in human institutions. And evolving these international institutions to meet the demands of today must be a critical part of American leadership.

现在，世界已经历巨变，这一框架也需改变。冷战时，肯尼迪总统曾谈到对于以人类机构逐渐改善为基础的和平的需要。对这些机构进行改进以达到今天的需求，是美国领导地位的重要一环。

Now, there are a lot of folks, a lot of skeptics who often downplay the effectiveness of multilateral action. For them, working through international institutions, like the U.N. or respecting international law, is a sign of weakness. I think they’re wrong. Let me offer just two examples why.

现在有许多人，也有许多质疑者经常贬低多边行动的有效性。对于他们而言，通过联合国这类的多边机构进行合作或者是尊重多边规则，是一种懦弱的表现。我认为他们错了。让我举两个例子来加以说明吧。 

In Ukraine, Russia’s recent actions recall the days when Soviet tanks rolled into Eastern Europe. But this isn’t the Cold War. Our ability to shape world opinion helped isolate Russia right away. Because of American leadership, the world immediately condemned Russian actions, Europe and the G-7 joined with us to impose sanctions, NATO reinforced our commitment to Eastern European allies, the IMF is helping to stabilize Ukraine’s economy, OSCE monitors brought the eyes of the world to unstable parts of Ukraine.

俄罗斯最近在乌克兰的举动令我想起了苏联大批坦克开进东欧的情形。但是现在不是冷战时期。我们制造的国际舆论让俄罗斯在短时间内就被孤立。在美国的领导下，国际社会马上谴责俄罗斯的举动，欧洲和七国集团同我们一样对其实施制裁，北大西洋公约组织恪守我们对东盟的承诺，国际货币基金组织正在帮助稳定乌克兰的经济，欧洲安全和合作组织也在关注乌克兰不稳定地区的发展。

And this mobilization of world opinion and international institutions served as a counterweight to Russian propaganda and Russian troops on the border and armed militias in ski masks.

世界观点和国际机构立场的转变，可与俄罗斯的宣传、其边境的军队以及全副武装的士兵相抗衡。

This weekend, Ukrainians voted by the millions. Yesterday, I spoke to their next president. We don’t know how the situation will play out, and there will remain grave challenges ahead, but standing with our allies on behalf of international order, working with international institutions, has given a chance for the Ukrainian people to choose their future -- without us firing a shot.

这周末，数百万的乌克兰公民会进行民主投票。昨天，我同他们下一届的总统进行了会谈。我们不知道情况会如何演变，前方也仍存在巨大的挑战，但是为了维护国际秩序，同我们的盟友一起，与国际组织进行合作，这给了乌克兰人民一个选择他们未来的机会一一这并不需要费一枪一弹。

Similarly, despite frequent warnings from the United States and Israel and others, the Iranian nuclear program steadily advanced for years. But at the beginning of my presidency, we built a coalition that imposed sanctions on the Iranian economy, while extending the hand of diplomacy to the Iranian government. And now we have an opportunity to resolve our differences peacefully. The odds of success are still long, and we reserve all options to prevent Iran from obtaining a nuclear weapon. But for the first time in a decade, we have a very real chance of achieving a breakthrough agreement, one that is more effective and durable than what we could have achieved through the use of force. And throughout these negotiations, it has been our willingness to work through multilateral channels that kept the world on our side.

类似的是，尽管美国、以色列及其他国家不断地对伊朗发出警告，伊朗核计划仍持续进行了好几年。在我担任总统职务初期，我们联合对伊朗的经济实行了制裁，但同时也帮助伊朗政府进行民主建设。现在我们有机会和平地解决我们的分歧。成功之路还十分漫长，我们要保留阻止伊朗获得核武器的各种手段。十年来我们第一次真正有机会达成一项突破性的协定，这比我们用武力达成协定来得更有效，效果也更持久。通过这些磋商，我们愿意通过多边途径让世界各国站在我们这一边。

The point is, this is American leadership. This is American strength.

重点是，这是在美国的领导下进行的。这是美国力量所在。

In each case, we built coalitions to respond to a specific challenge. Now we need to do more to strengthen the institutions that can anticipate and prevent problems from spreading.

对于不同的事件，我们会建立不同的联盟以应对不同的挑战。现在我们需要做更多来加强这些机构预测和预防问题扩散的能力。

For example, NATO is the strongest alliance the world has ever known but we’re now working with NATO allies to meet new missions both within Europe, where our eastern allies must be reassured, but also beyond Europe’s borders, where our NATO allies must pull their weight to counterterrorism and respond to failed states and train a network of partners.

比如，众所周知，北大西洋公约组织是世界上最强大的联盟之一，但是我们现在同它进行合作，以应对其在欧洲内部和其他地区的新任务。在欧洲内部，我们的东部盟国必须获得保护。而在其他地区，我们北大西洋公约组织的盟国也必须有效地进行反恐活动，帮助失利的国家并培养我们的伙伴国。

Likewise, the U.N. provides a platform to keep the peace in states torn apart by conflict. Now, we need to make sure that those nations who provide peacekeepers have the training and equipment to actually keep the peace so that we can prevent the type of killing we’ve seen in Congo and Sudan. We are going to deepen our investment in countries that support these peacekeeping missions because having other nations maintain order in their own neighborhoods lessens the need for us to put our own troops in harm’s way. It’s a smart investment. It’s the right way to lead. (Applause.)

同样地，联合国提供了一个平台，以维护那些因冲突而分裂的国家的和平。现在，我们需要确保那些提供了维和人员的国家已接受了训练，配齐了装备，能够真正维护和平，这样我们就能防止我们在刚果和苏丹看到的那种杀戮。我们会加大对这些支持维和行动国家的投资。因为令其他国家用自己的力量维持自己地盘的秩序，可以减少我们使用武力造成伤害的必要性。这是智慧的投资。这也是我们正确的领导之路。（掌声雷动）

Keep in mind, not all international norms relate directly to armed conflict. We have a serious problem with cyberattacks, which is why we’re working to shape and enforce rules of the road to secure our networks and our citizens. In the Asia Pacific, we’re supporting Southeast Asian nations as they negotiate a code of conduct with China on maritime disputes in the South China Sea, and we’re working to resolve these disputes through international law.

但是要记住，不是所有的国际准则都与军事冲突直接相关。我们面临着网络黑客攻击问题，这也是我们致力于实施和加强在网络中的行为准则，以保护我们的互联网和我们的公民的原因。在亚太地区，我们支持东南亚国家同中国协商在中国南海海事纠纷中的行为准则，同时我们也支持通过国际法解决这些纠纷。

That spirit of cooperation needs to energize the global effort to combat climate change, a creeping national security crisis that will help shape your time in uniform, as we are called on to respond to refugee flows and natural disasters, and conflicts over water and food, which is why, next year, I intend to make sure America is out front in putting together a global framework to preserve our planet.

我们需要用合作的精神激励全球努力应对气候变化，这是一个日益严重的国家安全危机，决定你们从军期间的整体形势。我们要应对难民流动、自然灾害，水资源和食物的问题。这也是我下一年计划确保美国能够带头建立一个保护我们星球的全球框架的原因。

You see, American influence is always stronger when we lead by example. We cannot exempt ourselves from the rules that apply to everyone else. We can’t call on others to make commitments to combat climate change if a whole lot of our political leaders deny that it is taking place. We can’t try to resolve problems in the South China Sea when we have refused to make sure that the Law of the Sea Convention is ratified by the United States Senate, despite the fact that our top military leaders say the treaty advances our national security. That’s not leadership. That’s retreat. That’s not strength; that’s weakness. It would be utterly foreign to leaders like Roosevelt and Truman, Eisenhower and Kennedy.

大家知道，但凡美国以身说法，实现领导，美国的影响力就会加大。大家都普遍遵循的规则，我们不能不遵守；如果我们多数领导人否认气候变化这一事实，我们也就无法号召大家齐心协力，共对气候变化。虽然我国军方高层领导人都认为《海洋法公约》的通过会提高我国的国家安全，但如果我们无法确保美国参议院通过该公约，我们也就无法解决中国南海问题。这都不是领导，是退缩；不是强大，是软弱。这与罗斯福，杜鲁门，艾森豪威尔，肯尼迪等领导人的风格截然相反。

I believe in American exceptionalism with every fiber of my being. But what makes us exceptional is not our ability to flout international norms and the rule of law; it is our willingness to affirm them through our actions.(Applause.)

我对美国例外主义深信不疑。但让我们例外的并不是美国通过实际行动重申国际准则与国际法，而是我们愿意通过实际行动彰显这些国际准则。（掌声）

And that’s why I will continue to push to close Gitmo, because American values and legal traditions do not permit the indefinite detention of people beyond our borders. (Applause.) That’s why we’re putting in place new restrictions on how America collects and uses intelligence -- because we will have fewer partners and be less effective if a perception takes hold that we’re conducting surveillance against ordinary citizens. (Applause.) America does not simply stand for stability or the absence of conflict, no matter what the cost; we stand for the more lasting peace that can only come through opportunity and freedom for people everywhere -- which brings me to the fourth and final element of American leadership: our willingness to act on behalf of human dignity.

这是我坚持推进关闭关塔那摩监狱的原因，美国价值观与法律传统不容许在美国境外无限期关押人员。（掌声）这是我们近来限制美国情报收集与使用方式的原因，如果美国一意孤行，继续监控普通民众的话，美国的合作伙伴势必会减少，效率势必会更为低下。（掌声）美国并不支持不惜任何代价维护稳定或消除冲突；我们支持拥护唯有机遇与自由可以为世界各国人民带来的更为持久的和平。这是我要谈的美国领导力量的第四个、也是最后一个要素，那就是我们愿为人类尊严而努力奋斗。

America’s support for democracy and human rights goes beyond idealism; it is a matter of national security. Democracies are our closest friends and are far less likely to go to war. Economies based on free and open markets perform better and become markets for our goods. Respect for human rights is an antidote （解药）to instability and the grievances 不满 that fuel violence and terror.

美国对民主与人权的主张胜过对理想主义的追求；这是关乎国家安全的大计。民主国家是美国最亲密的盟友，民主国家绝不可能走向战争。基于自由开放的经济体发挥着更加积极的作用，也逐渐成为我国产品的目的市场。尊重人权有利于改善动荡局势，缓和不满情绪，遏制暴力及恐怖的滋生。

A new century has brought no end to tyranny. In capitals around the globe -- including, unfortunately, some of America’s partners -- there has been a crackdown on civil society. The cancer of corruption has enriched too many governments and their cronies and enraged citizens from remote villages to iconic squares.

新世纪早已到来，暴政却还未终结。不幸地，在一些国家，包括美国的伙伴国家在内，镇压依然存在于公民社会中。腐败的毒瘤养富了政府官员及其裙带密友，但也激怒了全国各地的普通民众。

And watching these trends, or the violent upheavals in parts of the Arab world, it’s easy to be cynical. But remember that because of America’s efforts -- because of American diplomacy and foreign assistance, as well as the sacrifices of our military -- more people live under elected governments today than at any time in human history. Technology is empowering civil society in ways that no iron fist can control. New breakthroughs are lifting hundreds of millions of people out of poverty. And even the upheaval of the Arab world reflects the rejection of an authoritarian order that was anything but stable, and now offers the long-term prospect of more responsive and effective governance.

想想这些现实潮流，想想阿拉伯世界的暴力动乱，我们很容易变得愤世嫉俗。但要记住，是美国的努力奋斗，美国的外交政策，美国的对外援助，还有美国军人的无私奉献，使得更多人在民选政府的管理之下安居乐业，这在历史上无可比拟。科技赋予公民社会更多权利，这也是铁臂金刚所控制不了的。得益于科技新突破，千百万人摆脱贫困。甚至是阿拉伯世界的动乱也反映了人们对动荡独裁秩序的摒弃，也产生了对一个更为有求必应的更有效率政府管理的长期愿景。

In countries like Egypt, we acknowledge that our relationship is anchored in security interests, from peace treaties to Israel to shared efforts against violent extremism. So we have not cut off cooperation with the new government, but we can and will persistently press for reforms that the Egyptian people have demanded.

在埃及这样的国家，我们承认从和平条约到与以色列共同对抗暴力极端主义等安全利益方面，我们的关系停滞不前。我们没有切断与埃及新政府的往来合作，但我们有能力，也会坚持推进埃及人民要求的各项改革措施。

And meanwhile, look at a country like Myanmar, which only a few years ago was an intractable dictatorship and hostile to the United States. Forty million people. Thanks to the enormous courage of the people in that country, and because we took the diplomatic initiative, American leadership, we have seen political reforms opening a once- closed society; a movement by Myanmar leadership away from partnership with North Korea in favor of engagement with America and our allies.

同时，再看看缅甸，仅仅几年前还是顽固独裁之地，还对美国持敌对态度。多亏四千万缅甸人的巨大勇气，多亏美国主动开启的外交之旅，多亏美国领导力量的共同作用，我们看到了可喜的政治变革，看到了一个曾经闭关的社会重新开放；缅甸领导人避与朝鲜合作，为的是实现与美国及美国同盟更好的交流往来。

We’re now supporting reform and badly needed national reconciliation through assistance and investment, through coaxing and, at times, public criticism. And progress there could be reversed, but if Myanmar succeeds we will have gained a new partner without having fired a shot -- American leadership.

现在，通过投资援助、公开批评与感召劝服，我们支持缅甸改革、支持缅甸人民渴望的民族和解。发展进程可能会倒退逆转，如果不费一兵一卒，如果缅甸取得成功，我们也就多了个合作伙伴，这就是美国的领导力量。

In each of these cases, we should not expect change to happen overnight. That’s why we form alliances -- not only with governments, but also with ordinary people. For unlike other nations, America is not afraid of individual empowerment. We are strengthened by it. We’re strengthened by civil society. We’re strengthened by a free press. We’re strengthened by striving entrepreneurs and small businesses. We’re strengthened by educational exchange and opportunity for all people and women and girls. That’s who we are. That’s what we represent. (Applause.)

任何时候我们不能指望改变一蹴而就。所以我们必须结盟，不仅与政府结盟，也与普通民众结成盟友。与其他国家不同，美国从不畏惧个人力量，而是从中汲取能量。公民社会，自由舆论，创业人才，小型企业，教育交流以及针对全社会面向妇女儿童敞开的机会之门无一不是我们的力量之源。这就是美国人，这才是美国梦。

I saw that through a trip to Africa last year, where American assistance has made possible the prospect of an AIDS-free generation, while helping Africans care themselves for their sick. We’re helping farmers get their products to market to feed populations once endangered by famine. We aim to double access to electricity in sub- Saharan Africa so people are connected to the promise of the global economy. And all this creates new partners and shrinks the space for terrorism and conflict.

去年的非洲之行让我看到美国向非洲伸出援手，治病救人，使得一代非洲人远离艾滋的愿景成为可能。我们帮助当地农民销售农产品，令倍受饥荒折磨的人们不再挨饿。我们为撒哈拉以南的非洲地区带去光明，让全球经济的累累硕果惠及当地百姓。如此一来，既催生了新的合作伙伴，也捣毁了恐怖主义与暴力冲突的温床。

Now, tragically, no American security operation can eradicate the threat posed by an extremist group like Boko Haram -- the group that kidnapped those girls.

遗憾的是，目前美国安全行动还未能根除由极端组织带来的威胁，例如绑架女童的博科圣地（Boko Haram）。

And that’s we have to focus not just on rescuing those girls right away, but also on supporting Nigerian efforts to educate its youth. This should be one of the hard-earned lessons of Iraq and Afghanistan, where our military became the strongest advocate for diplomacy and development. They understood that foreign assistance is not an afterthought -- something nice to do apart from our national defense, apart from our national security. It is part of what makes us strong.

我们要做的不仅是解救被困女童，还应支持尼日利亚发展青年教育事业。我们在伊拉克与阿富汗的宝贵经验表明美军已成为外交与发展最强劲的倡导者。战士们都明白对外援助并非事后诸葛亮，而是和国防及国土安全一样不可偏废的崇高事业。我们也因此变得强大。

Now, ultimately, global leadership requires us to see the world as it is, with all its danger and uncertainty. We have to be prepared for the worst, prepared for every contingency, but American leadership also requires us to see the world as it should be -- a place where the aspirations of individual human beings really matters, where hopes and not just fears govern; where the truths written into our founding documents can steer the currents of history in the direction of justice. And we cannot do that without you.

现在，最后我要说引领全球的使命要求我们直视这个充满危险与动荡的世界。除了未雨绸缪，防患于未然，我们别无选择，但这并不妨碍我们勾画未来世界的蓝图——人人心怀希望，凡事不再畏惧，让写入宪章的真理引领我们在通往正义的大道上勇往直前。这一切就看你们的了。

Class of 2014, you have taken this time to prepare on the quiet banks of the Hudson. You leave this place to carry forward a legacy that no other military in human history can claim. You do so as part of a team that extends beyond your units or even our Armed Forces, for in the course of your service, you will work as a team with diplomats and development experts.

各位2014届毕业生，过去的你们是哈德逊河畔（西点军校所在地）的学子，而今后离开象牙塔的你们将承载这份荣耀延续美国军队的辉煌。作为部队的一员，每一位履行职责的你们终将汇聚成美国武装部队，因为在这一过程中，你们实际上是在同外交官与发展专家并肩作战。

You’ll get to know allies and train partners. And you will embody what it means for America to lead the world.

你们将结识盟友，培养搭档，用你们的实际行动告诉世界对美国来说领导世界意味着什么。

Next week I will go to Normandy to honor the men who stormed the beaches there. And while it’s hard for many Americans to comprehend the courage and sense of duty that guided those who boarded small ships, it’s familiar to you. At West Point, you define what it means to be a patriot.

下周，我将参加诺曼底登陆70周年纪念活动。尽管许多美国人难以对诺曼底号船员的魄力与责任感感同身受，但是你们可以。在西点军校，爱国者的形象由你们来塑造。

Three years ago Gavin White graduated from this academy. He then served in Afghanistan. Like the soldiers who came before him, Gavin was in a foreign land, helping people he’d never met, putting himself in harm’s way for the sake of his community and his family and the folks back home. Gavin lost one of his legs in an attack. I met him last year at Walter Reed. He was wounded but just as determined as the day that he arrived here at West Point. And he developed a simple goal. Today his sister Morgan will graduate. And true to his promise, Gavin will be there to stand and exchange salutes with her. (Cheers, applause.)

3年前，加文•怀特（Gavin White）从西点毕业，前往阿富汗服役。和每一位投身阿富汗前线的士兵一样，加文背井离乡，帮助素未谋面的当地人，为了军队，家人和美国人民的利益不辞劳苦。加文在一次战斗中不幸失去一条腿。去年我在沃尔特•里德(Walter Reed)陆军医疗中心见过他。尽管负了伤，他仍然像刚进西点时一样，不忘初心，并且立下另一个志愿。今天，他的妹妹摩根（Morgan）也将从这里毕业。加文终于能够兑现当初的承诺，和妹妹互敬军礼。

We have been through a long season of war. We have faced trials that were not foreseen and we’ve seen divisions about how to move forward. But there is something in Gavin’s character, there is something in the American character, that will always triumph.

我们经历了战争的洗礼，经受过突如其来的考验，开辟出前进的道路。但是有一样东西烙在加文的骨子里，镌刻在美国人与生俱来的品质中，使得我们所向披靡。

Leaving here, you carry with you the respect of your fellow citizens. You will represent a nation with history and hope on our side. Your charge now is not only to protect our country, but to do what is right and just. As your commander in chief, I know you will. May God bless you. May God bless our men and women in uniform. And may God bless the United States of America. (Cheers, applause.)

你们心系祖国人民，离开西点。你们代表的是一个历经风雨，踌躇满志的美国。你们的使命不仅是保家卫国，更是伸张正义。身为最高统帅，我对你们充满信心。愿上帝保佑你们，保佑美国公民，保佑美利坚合众国。（欢呼，掌声）

 公司委托律师或非律师的人用

　  We, _______________, a corporation duly organized and existing pursuant to the laws of ________________ with its office at ______________, hereby appoint and empower Mr./Ms.  _____________ to be our agent ad litem in the first and second instances and/or retrial respectively, as well as in the enforcement procedures, with respect to the case of _______vs.__________.

　　We further appoint and empower any of the above-mentioned attorneys to prepare the answer and appear before the competent court hearing; to counter-claim; to investigate, collect, and deliver to the relevant court any related evidence; to make compromise; to accept any mediation presided over by court; to admit, waive or modify the claims; to prepare the statement of appeal and file an appeal; to apply for retrial; to apply for measures of evidence preservation and measures of property preservation during or before the proceedings; to apply for enforcement of the valid court documents; to accept service of court documents; to sign and receive verdicts, judgments, summons, decisions and any other court document, and to handle all other issues in connection with the said matters.

　　In particular, we appoint and empower Mr./Ms. _________to nominate and authorize any other lawyer of the law firm to engage in, fulfill and implement any of the matters and issues as contemplated herein.

　　We further grant our recognition to the acts made and the documents signed by the attorneys mentioned above within the limits of the powers granted herein.

　　We hereby confirm that this Power of Attorney shall remain in full force from the date of signature and/or seal through the completion of the matters as set forth in this Power of Attorney.

　　IN WITNESS WHEREOF we cause this Power of Attorney to be duly signed and/or sealed.             

——————————(seal)

Date:  ———————

国内律师受当事人委托再委托国外律师用

On _________（week）

Corresponding to : _________（day）_________(month)

Gregorian Calendar:_________(year)

    We, _________Law Firm of_________(province),China. (hereinafter _________), a law firm duly organized and existing under the laws of the People’s Republic of China, having its principal executive offices at_________(address), P. R. China, hereby appoints and empower Mr./Ms. ________(foreign attorney) representative (hereinafter REPRESENTATIVE) and hereby grants REPRESENTATIVE power of attorney to undertake the following actions on behalf of ________(Law Firm)--Mr. /Ms. ________(Chinese attorney) , ________ nationality holding passport No. ________                   in his capacity as authorized signatory on behalf of ________________(client name) C.R.--------- .

    The Principals does hereby constitute Mr./Ms. ________(foreign attorney) – CPR No. ________ as her/his true and lawful Attorney to commence and defend any suit to appear as a plaintiff or a defendant before all the Kingdom of Bahrain courts of different jurisdiction including Court of Cassation to sign documents relating to such suits to attend in guiries to summon, deny, settle and for arbitrate, to accept, to tender, to decisive oath, to challenge handwriting, seals, signatures, and appeal against him / company as being forged to apply the nomination or, rejection of apply the nomination or, rejection of experts to appear before them, to comment and make written submission to accept receive and excute judgments, to receive any money in case of any judgment in his company’s favor or any money deposited in the Court’s, treasury, to deliver and receive papers and documents, to deliver statements , applications and to pursue any papers , documents and to get as much copies of them for purpose of appeal , revision or review and for the purpose of all other official and legal procedures which such suit need , to represent her/his before the ________  Court and all other official authorities in the ________, and from time to time to substitute and to appoint one or more attorney or attorneys for all or any of the aforesaid acts, and to take any action he deemed reasonable In witness whereof, this power of attorney was made in one original and one copy which was signed after had been red by all those present and by me, and the parties concerned were given two copies thereof to act in accordance herewith.

________ Law Firm

Signature ________

Date: ________ 

（本文转载自广东亚泰律师事务所刘峰律师,本人有删改）

    本周应朋友之请，给人做了一份中学生在加拿大上学的监护人公证书。放在网上给同行们借鉴。

委托监护人声明-父母/监护人 

我们的孩子将与另一人 接待户家庭（请提供姓名并说明关系）

我们，XXX 和 XXX 是学生 XXX 的父母/监护人，在此授XXXXXXX.XXXXX全权管理上述学生在加拿大住宿的省份未达到成年之前的管理。我们已做好上述学生的各项照顾和生活安排，管理人应该代表我们父母进行处理。我们签署此声明，确认指定的管理人居住地与我们孩子将要选择的居住地以及学校之间的距离适当，能够确保管理人在紧急情况下执行管理人职责。

父母/监护人（1）签字：                            日期：

父母/监护人（2）签字：                            日期：

于---------年--------月-------日，在---------国家---------省市，在我面前，作出上述声明。

公证员签字：---------------------                           -------------------公证处盖章

CUSTODIANSHIP DECLARATION-PARENTS/GUARDIANS 

My/our child will reside:

With appointed custodian        in the school dormitory       or  with another person

I/We -------and -------(name of the parents or guardians, the parents/guardians of the said student---------(name of student), hereby grant full custodianship to -----------(name of custodian),during the student's stay in Canada while he/she is under the age of majority in the province in which he/she resides. I have made the necessary arrangements for the care and support of the said student such that the custodian should act in the place of me/us, the parents. By signing this custodian agreement, I/We affirm that I am/we are satisfied the above appointed custodian resides within a reasonable distance of my/our child's intended residence and school and will be able to fulfil his/her obligations as a custodian in the event of an emergency.

Signature of parent/guardian (1):                Date:

Signature of parent/guardian (2):                Date:

Sworn before me at:------------(city), in the province of -------------(privince/territory), ----------(contry)

This ------Day of ----------(month)---------(year)

Signatue of Notary:                                  Official seal of Notary Public  

混沌的乡村挽歌

——评戴助安小说《天地玄黄》

杨柳岸

一个贪图小利的小商贩，在火车上得到一个不明包裹，作为意外之财带回家，却发现原来是一包碎尸，一起凶杀案由此浮出水面。这就是戴助安小说《天地玄黄》（载《杨凌文苑》2009·1）的引人入胜的开篇。不可否认，这篇小说确有相当的可读性：凶杀，爱情，友谊，经商，历史等等，这些时下流行的好小说应具备的诸多题材和元素，在这篇小说中可谓一应俱全。凶杀：千里碎尸案本已离奇自不用说；爱情：李武王曲儿的父辈因有情人不能成眷属而生的婚姻情仇纠葛和夺妻之恨，而致使一方妻离人亡，仅有孤弱老幼相依为命的人间悲剧，这都是一个情字惹的祸。小说中描写不多的李武生身母亲兰兰，她的不幸遭遇是旧时代不幸的女性的命运写照。友谊：两个小伙伴李武和王曲儿之间的情谊天真烂漫，描写得既真切动人又有时代特色乡土韵味，特别是他们二人那一次结伴徒步去陕北革命圣地，其豪情壮志和青春风采动人情怀。经商：上海小人物侯景，在特殊时期异地贩卖领袖纪念章。穷人的孩子早当家，年纪轻轻的王曲儿，为了给父亲治病和贴补家用，而去经商“背猪娃”，小说中对此有生动的描写。历史：小说中的故事本身就发生在近四十年前的文革时期，时代特征明显。小说中存在有蛛丝马迹般的时代气息。还插有李武的爷爷讲“赵氏孤儿”的故事， 913林彪叛逃事件，解放战争中的扶眉战役，之后的贺龙率二野部队沿陈仓古道进军等作为小说背景的历史事件，这些都给小说增添了真实感和凝重的历史氛围。总之，诸多元素具备，小说很“实”，沉甸甸的，在这个浮躁的，一切都倾向于娱乐化的时代，这样的作品应该是一部不仅是有可读性，更应该是一部厚重的扣问历史扣问现实人生的好作品。

小说的结构也似乎别具匠心，一三五七章节写上海一个小商贩侯景，无意中与千里之外的一桩命案扯上了关系，及公安机关侦破过程。而二四六八章节是小说的主体，写陕西省西南农村两个从小到大的好友，及两个家庭的两代人几十年恩怨情仇的故事。二者这样交叉描写。可以说小说因此被分为两个部分，平行发展，二水并流，共同入海，到最后融合统一。一个平凡小人物的一次贪图小利之举，引出了千里之外的一桩凶杀案，实属离奇，却也自然而合情合理，凶杀案使两个地方发生联系。现在与过去交换叙述，千里之外的两个地方轮番描写，这并未使小说显得松散，反而使小说有一种纪实感，和时空地域的宏大感，情节向前推进，故事逐步深入，这种结构也可说新颖别致。当然此种手法古已有之，比如由说书人常用语“花开两朵各表一枝”就与此类似。

按理说，有了内容，有了结构和框架，艺术的大厦就应该矗立起来。但实际上，这篇小说并不是很成功，存在着诸多不足，甚至可以说，它只是一篇好作品的毛坯，远不能称为成功的艺术品，还需大量的打磨。首先，详略失当是一个非常低级的技术性失误。小说被分为两个部分，但小说的重点显然是第二部分，那么这部分就应详细描写。与小说的故事并无过多牵涉，可是作者对这个人物花了不少笔墨，相比较起李武王曲儿的故事来，小说开头写侯景这个人物时非常舒缓从容，文字不乏冷静细致的细节描写，从语感上看，似乎这是一部长篇小说的开头，有一种大气。但对于小说的整体来说，却有喧宾夺主之意。单独看，侯景这个特殊时期的上海小商贩，连同他那出场不多的“新闻传播员”的妻子，这两个人物形象还塑造得还算成功，许多细节描写也很真实可信，但这些都游离于小说主题之外，实际上只是起了一个“引出正文”的作用。当然，在这篇小说中，侯景这个人物是应该有的，只是说文字应该更简要。对于此，作者完全可用最省简的文字几笔带过，也完全可以符号化笼统处理。这个上海特殊时期的小商贩的偶然奇遇，应该是另一篇小说的故事和人物。故事的场地跨越上海和陕西千里之隔，可以看出，作者的艺术魄力和勇气想把上海这一部分也纳入他的审美创造，用人性的视野和角度来统摄之，可是并不成功。如果不能把两部分统一起来，那么原先的二重结构就显得大而无当，流于空洞的形式主义。

对于一篇工笔细描的现实主义作品，作者应该有一种局外人的冷静和理智，避免一些明显的硬伤，比如小说第七节结尾时，在王天龙叙述完二十年前那段恩怨情仇往事时，作者用了一句“真相大白”。对于一个重大凶杀案来说，只听一个人的一面之词，凶手并未抓获更未审理，就远不能称真相大白，至多只能说案情有重大突破。再比如，写侯景的老婆问他：“茶呆呆的，净发瓷，好像有啥心事？”这应该是陕西方言，不应是上海话。还有一些词语的使用，比如，毛发倒竖转颜失色，怒从心头起恶向胆边生，量小非君子无毒不丈夫等等，这些富于情节化戏剧化的词语，它们本身响亮铿锵，语意明确，却失之简单化，显得过分，言过其实，失去了应有的分寸感，将人物复杂丰富的内心世界简单化概念化了，也让读者失去了想象的空间。这些硬伤虽小，但并不是可以忽略的。对于一部成功的，凝重的现实主义作品来说，细节的真实性是其生命力的重要保证，任何小的瑕疵都可能影响艺术的可信度。小说的题目也过于抽象，模糊。小说所写到的场景和意境，远没有大到需要用天和地来诠释。显得大而无当。天地玄黄，本是传统文化经典启蒙读本《千字文》的首句，众口相传成为习句。作者取其混沌之意，也许要表达的是一种对命运的荒诞感，苦难人们几十年命运的阴差阳错，非常岁月中复杂人性考问，伦理道德的揭示。也许为了强调这一点，作者不惜画蛇添足地在小说结尾添上一句：“天地玄黄，人性乖张。”以此来喟然长叹，揭示主题。

就局部来看，小说也有很多成功的描写，其中就不乏对次要人物描写成功的例子，比如小说中那个无辜的死者王曲儿，他从学校出来，为了家庭，早早地就开始做生意挣钱养家糊口，这是许多农村青年的写照。小说中生动地写到了他“背猪娃”，很有地域色彩，这和侯景所做的生意倒卖领袖像章，这都是在文革那个特殊时期，人们私下做生意谋生的生存写照。小说中写到的这两处做生意的文字，很有新意。小说中的一些次要人物和一些闲笔写得很出彩，比如小说中对杨凌科技人员Z先生这个人物就描写得比较成功。这个人物有潜故事，他出生大都市上海，献身中国农业科技，到当时还是小镇的杨凌来搞科研，但是也没有躲过文革的伤害。这样的科学家在杨凌还有很多。写科学家的乖张命运，也并非可有可无的闲笔，也和这篇小说的主题时代氛围都相吻合。作者笔有余闲，在叙述紧张的案件侦破过程时也顺便写一下这位科学家，点明他也是上海人，使小说内容丰富，叙述上也舒张有致，特别是对小说情节的推进来说，Z先生更为重要，他的土壤学研究来是这个案件的突破点，也是小说非常精彩的一笔，为侦破小说增添了科技含量。这些配角人物之所以描写成功，就在于简明扼要，并与小说的故事与主题相关联，没有游离于外。

除了上述这些技术性失误之外，小说本身的艺术感染力和价值取向还是可圈可点之处的，特别是小说成功地还原了乡村历史场景，创造了几个很有历史感，复杂而耐人寻味的人物形象。李武的爷爷李宽仁，作者是否精心为其命名的，“宽容仁慈”，是否还有某种反讽意味？爷孙二人几十年相依为命，其间所受的苦难和亲情都可想而知，他身经新旧两世历尽沧桑，心里尽是伤痕，我们可以说，这是一个心里满是慈爱宽容好爷爷，小说中写他给幼小的李武教唐诗宋词等，可见，此人有内涵，深明大义。但是，我不理解的是，他心里还同时装满仇恨，一心想复仇。如小说中所写，他曾想拿手雷去与仇敌同归于尽，他难道不考虑他年幼的孙子何人抚养。他给孙子讲赵氏孤儿的故事，但是，赵氏孤儿故事中是国仇民族大义，而他这只是一家私仇，并非什么深仇大恨，只是两家打架失手致人非命，二者远不能相提并论。他临终嘱托孙子报仇，来完成他的“未竟心愿”，他难道不知道孙子杀人之后要受国法，他爱孙子呢还是害孙子？到死都不宽恕？几代人的人生意义难道就只是冤冤相报你死我活？按理说，对于李宽仁这个老人，作者把善良等可贵的人性化理念寄寓在他身上，更有感召力和说服力，他饱世事经沧桑历尽人生坎坷，更应该有一种过来人的宽容与豁达。但是，我竟然在这个人物上读不到多少善良这个简单的因子，我的阅读期望有所落空。虽然说以善恶二元论来划分人物，是过去简单的落后的艺术观念，但作为伦理感强的作品，善恶观毕竟是重要的可贵的人性诉求，是美好艺术中温暖的因子。而这篇小说中许多人物形象的善恶观淡漠，那个李天龙兄弟二人，失手把人家打死了，没有忏悔赎罪之心，还要在文革中处处想法加害于死者的父亲和儿子？这是不是失去了一个农民朴实的本色？他们既然忌恨李武，还允许儿子王曲儿和李武来往并成为好友？这似乎也是不合情理的地方。小说中对人性的恶，有一种单一的色彩。当然不是说作品就不应该写这些仇恨和恶，而是说作为艺术品的小说应该要有善的底韵，要以恶来召示和彰显善，作者应该有站在更高人性高度上，俯瞰众生的慈悲之心。当然，李宽仁这个人物也有相当的丰富性和一定的普遍意义，因为中国人的一些传统落后的思想观念因一定的社会基础而会长期存在。

如果说李宽仁作为从旧社会过来的人物还算比较成功的话，那么长在新中国的年轻人李武，这个人物形象就并不很成功，主要是他承载的“使命”过于沉重，几代人的恩怨情仇要他一人来作个了断，致使他性格扭曲变形，他杀人的动机只有一个，那就是杀父之仇不共戴天这个旧时代的伦理观念，为此他不惜把从小到大的好友杀死。他为什么不想一下，他父亲死于两家打架失手，双方都有过错。如果讨个说法，也要走正当渠道。作为新社会的青年，他缺乏新思想，现代意识，除了报仇应该还有更高远的人生意义。他复仇的思想依据是什么？仅仅是听了祖父临终时道明真相？重复那个旧伦理杀父之仇不共戴天？他非要在亲情与友情之间来个取舍？这缺乏足够的可信度，小说写他杀人时内心活动很多很细，来龙去脉前因后果无懈可击，似乎很圆融，但是显得冗繁过实，简单化。比如作者写李武杀人时的一个思想活动：“常言道，人生有三大不不幸事，幼年丧父，中年丧偶，老来丧子。我李武幼年丧父，尝遍了孤儿的酸甜苦辣，饱受了世态的冷暖炎凉，看尽了别人的眉高眼低，这都是谁造成的？王天龙？你王天龙能让我幼年丧父，你何不能让你老来失子？无毒不丈夫，你杀了我父，我本当找你算账，现在我改变主意了，要你儿子替你偿命。你看够了我幼年无靠的悲凉，我也要看看你老来无养的凄惨。”这一大段的心理描写似乎把李武的杀人动机准确全面地作个交待，但因过于理念化而并不是很有艺术感染力，刚好二十岁的他会有这样的“深刻，成熟，老辣”？写他幼年如何苦难，前文并无交待，也显得突然。按常理，一个人对他的童年回忆，基本上都是幸福的，如小说中的描写，他童年和王曲儿的友谊就很温馨动人。有爷爷和他相依为命，教他唐诗宋词，他仇恨的种子何时播种到内心的？李武的童年和青少年时期，正是新中国欣欣向荣时期，贫苦人民当家作主，甚至还有越穷越光荣之说，几乎不存在他仇恨心理的社会基础。那么，只能是文革开始时他爷爷被批斗之时。这一点小说中也写到了。当然并不是说，对于文革这个历史垃圾场，什么东西都可以往里扔，什么都可以推之于文革。但文革对人性的伤害之深，文学有责任给予展示。文革确是一个伦理坠落、价值失衡、史无前例的浑沌时代，必定在人心理上投下阴影。以往我们的社会只强调它对知识分子和政治等显要人物的伤害，事实上，它对对普通人，底层人民精神思想的烙印和潜在的精神伤害，也同样深。社会动乱，法制淡漠，一些人也趁机报私仇。人性泯灭，发泄内心的恶。如果把李武杀人的心理动机很大程度上归于文革这个大的社会环境，也许更可信一点，更有深广的社会意义。尽管作者并没有明确这样写出，但作品客观上已经具有了这样潜在的的意义和价值旨向。事实上，就因为作者的描写过“实”，太理念化，太强调伦理，就失掉了许多“客观意义”。其实作者应该认识到这样一个规律：任何艺术品的最终完成，都是创作者和受众共同来完成的。在这篇小说中，作者的过度“明确”，使小说本该有的“多义性”受到限制，他只能把小说的意义简单地归于脱离社会现实的恒定的却也是空洞又抽象的——“人性”。李武杀人时作过激烈的思想斗争，最后将杀人的动机简单地归于酒后乱性这个偶然性事件，缺乏社会意义，杀人后他精心处理尸体，看来他还是富于谋略，后他被绳之以法时，“当冰冷的手铐铐住李武的手腕时，他痛哭流涕，连声说，前悔容易后悔难，悔不该酒醉错杀好友。”这又是他狡辩，还是真心话，可能兼而有之，其复杂内心矛盾也是可以理解的，但是，但是作为小说的一个重要的主人公，他没有足够的性格魅力和人格感召力，他仅在几个月前还在临终的爷爷跟前作铮铮誓词：“杀父之仇，不共戴天，不报此仇，妄为儿孙。”这又作何解释？不可否认人性是有其复杂性的，但应该以艺术来梳理之驾驭之。总的来说，这个人物性格的矛盾性是很明显的，作者在艺术处理上有许多不合情理之处。这也与作者本身的思想倾向性不甚明确有关。他很难以一种恰当的态度来处理这种人性的复杂矛盾，也不想把他精心塑造的报仇主人公写得太恶，太缺乏人性，最后也只能归于酒后乱性这种缺乏社会意义性的偶然性事件，这种折中主义不仅只是冲淡了小说复仇的庄严的氛围，更为重要的是损害了人物的性格。当然也不可否认，李武酒后乱性杀人也可能是事实，但只能说是一个因素，决不能成为借口逃脱社会责任。作者原本是想剥离社会性来写更深刻的人性，却又不彻底，只能流于一般化，缺乏应有深刻性，在艺术表现上呈现一种混沌状态。当然，作者在艺术上的挑战人性复杂性的勇气，还是颇值得肯定的。

复仇是文学中的一个永恒的，古老而又弥新的命题，作为一篇写复仇的小说，作品在一定程度上也是成功的。小说写了当代乡村一个普通的案件，这个案件和过去有着千丝万缕的联系，作品也有这样的意义，或者说让人失落的思考：为什么现在的村庄还依然唱着过去的歌谣。小说就是用一个案件，为乡村的过去唱一曲挽歌。但是，小说所写的许多内容呈现出一种混沌性，过去与现在，爱与恨，友谊与仇恨，善与恶，小说客观上写出了这些复杂性，也也许正是这种复杂的二重性，也致使这篇作品也呈现出一种优点和不足纠缠在一起的态势。许多描写，从这个角度看是优长，换个角度却成了败笔，这种现象在作品在屡见不鲜，给人一种混沌的感觉。许多价值观没有给予清晰地梳理，在人生意义和艺术追求上浅尝辄止。艺术，要靠形象说话，不可否认，小说所写到的内容确实丰富，小说成功地写出了生活的复杂性和生活的厚重感。但这些只是许多人物和事件，他们呈现出一种松散、模糊的面貌，有故事、事件，并不等于就是小说艺术，有名有姓的人物也并不等于人物艺术形象，如果说把小说家比作导演，他需要全身心地融入他的艺术血液，把那些松散的材料“捏合”成艺术品。这就对创作者主体提出了更高的要求。面对生活的复杂，千头万绪，却又浑然自足，创作者主体要有一种整体的驾驭能力，从这篇《天地玄黄》厚重又混沌的作品来看，作者在这方面确有所欠缺。尽管这篇小说有诸多不足，但还是给我们呈现了一幅乡村历史图，也给我们留下关于生活与艺术，乡村与历史，爱情与复仇等诸多问题的思考和可贵的艺术探索。

2009-3-10

秦腔mp3下载300首（一）

曹斌锋 

秦腔mp3下载300首（二）

曹斌锋 

最长的唐诗——《永嘉大师证道歌》
 
 
君不见。
绝学无为闲道人。不除妄想不求真。
无明实性即佛性。幻化空身即法身。
法身觉了无一物。本源自性天真佛。
五蕴浮云空去来。三毒水炮虚出没。
证实相。无人法。刹那灭却阿鼻业。
若将妄语诳众生。自招拔舌尘沙劫。
顿觉了。如来禅。六度万行体中圆。
梦里明明有六趣。觉后空空无大千。
无罪福。无损益。寂灭性中莫问觅。
此来尘镜未曾磨。今日分明须剖析。
谁无念。谁无生。若实无生无不生。
唤取机关木人问。求佛施功早晚成。
放四大。莫把捉。寂灭性中随饮啄。
诸行无常一切空。即是如来大圆觉。
决定说。表真乘。有人不肯任情征。
直截根源佛所印。摘叶寻枝我不能。
摩尼珠。人不识。如来藏里亲收得。
六般神用空不空。一颗圆光色非色。
净五根。得五力。唯证乃知难可测。
镜里看形见不难。水中捉月争拈得。
常独行。常独步。达者同游涅槃路。
调古神清风自高。貌颊骨刚人不顾。
穷释子。口称贫。实是身贫道不贫。
贫则身常披缕褐。道则心藏无价珍。
无价珍。用无尽。利物应机终不吝。
三身四智体中圆。八解六通心地印。
上士一决一切了。中下多闻多不信。
但自怀中解垢衣。谁能向外夸精进。
从他谤。任他非。把火烧天徒自疲。
我闻恰似饮甘露。销融顿入不思议。
观恶言。是功德。此则成吾善知识。
不因讪谤起怨亲。何表无生慈忍力。
宗亦通。说亦通。定慧圆明不滞空。
非但我今独达了。恒沙诸佛体皆同。
师子吼。无畏说。百兽闻之皆脑裂。
香象奔波失却威。天龙寂听生欣悦。
游江海。涉山川。寻师访道为参禅。
自从认得曹溪路。了知生死不相关。
行亦禅。坐亦禅。语默动静体安然。
纵遇锋刀常坦坦。假饶毒药也闲闲。
我师得见然灯佛。多劫曾为忍辱仙。
几回生。几回死。生死悠悠无定止。
自从顿悟了无生。于诸荣辱何忧喜。
入深山。住兰若。岑崟幽邃长松下。
优游静坐野僧家。阒寂安居实潇洒。
觉即了。不施功。一切有为法不同。
住相布施生天福。犹如仰箭射虚空。
势力尽。箭还坠。招得来生不如意。
争似无为实相门。一超直入如来地。
但得本。莫愁末。如净琉璃含宝月。
既能解此如意珠。自利利他终不竭。
江月照。松风吹。永夜清宵何所为。
佛性戒珠心地印。雾露云霞体上衣。
降龙钵。解虎锡。两钴金环鸣历历。
不是标形虚事持。如来宝杖亲踪迹。
不求真。不断妄。了知二法空无相。
无相无空无不空。即是如来真实相。
心镜明。鉴无碍。廓然莹彻周沙界。
万象森罗影现中。一颗圆光非内外。
豁达空。拨因果。莽莽荡荡招殃祸。
弃有著空病亦然。还如避溺而投火。
舍妄心。取真理。取舍之心成巧伪。
学人不了用修行。真成认贼将为子。
损法财。灭功德。莫不由斯心意识。
是以禅门了却心。顿入无生知见力。
大丈夫。秉慧剑。般若锋兮金刚焰。
非但空摧外道心。早曾落却天魔胆。
震法雷。击法鼓。布慈云兮洒甘露。
龙象蹴踏润无边。三乘五性皆醒悟。
雪山肥腻更无杂。纯出醒醐我常纳。
一性圆通一切性。一法遍含一切法。
一月普现一切水。一切水月一月摄。
诸佛法身入我性。我性同共如来合。
一地具足一切地。非色非心非行业。
弹指圆成八万门。刹那灭却三祇劫。
一切数句非数句。与吾灵觉何交涉。
不可毁。不可赞。体若虚空勿涯岸。
不离当处常湛然。觅即知君不可见。
取不得。舍不得。不可得中只么得。
默时说。说时默。大施门开无壅塞。
有人问我解何宗。报道摩诃般若力。
或是或非人不识。逆行顺行天莫测。
吾早曾经多劫修。不是等闲相诳惑。
建法幢。立宗旨。明明佛敕曹溪是。
第一迦叶首传灯。二十八代西天记。
法东流。入此土。菩提达摩为初祖。
六代传衣天下闻。后人得道何穷数。
真不立。妄本空。有无俱遣不空空。
二十空门元不著。一性如来体自同。
心是根。法是尘。两种犹如镜上痕。
痕垢尽除光始现。心法双忘性即真。
嗟末法。恶时世。众生福薄难调制。
去圣远兮邪见深。魔强法弱多怨害。
闻说如来顿教门。恨不灭除令瓦碎。
作在心。殃在身。不须怨诉更尤人。
欲得不招无间业。莫谤如来正***。
栴檀林。无杂树。郁密森沈师子住。
境静林间独自游。走兽飞禽皆远去。
师子儿。蒙随后。三岁便能大哮吼。
若是野干逐法王。百年妖怪虚开口。
圆顿教。没人情。有疑不决直须争。
不是山僧逞人我。修行恐落断常坑。
非不非。是不是。差之毫厘失千里。
是则龙女顿成佛。非则善星生陷坠。
吾早年来积学问。亦曾讨疏寻经论。
分别名相不知休。入海算沙徒自困。
却被如来苦诃责。数他珍宝有何益。
从来蹭蹬觉虚行。多年枉作风尘客。
种性邪。错知解。不达如来圆顿制。
二乘精进没道心。外道聪明无智慧。
亦愚痴。亦小騃。空拳指上生实解。
执指为月枉施功。根境法中虚捏怪。
不见一法即如来。方得名为观自在。
了即业障本来空。未了应须还夙债。
饥逢王膳不能餐。病遇医王争得瘥。
在欲行禅知见力。火中生莲终不坏。
勇施犯重悟无生。早时成佛于今在。
师子吼。无畏说。深嗟懵懂顽皮靼。
只知犯重障菩提。不见如来开秘诀。
有二比丘犯淫杀。波离萤光增罪结。
维摩大士顿除疑。犹如赫日销霜雪。
不思议。解脱力。妙用恒沙也无极。
四事供养敢辞劳。万两黄金亦消得。
粉骨碎身未足酬。一句了然超百亿。
法中王。最高胜。恒沙如来同共证。
我今解此如意珠。信受之者皆相应。
了了见。无一物。亦无人。亦无佛。
大千沙界海中沤。一切圣贤如电拂。
假使铁轮顶上旋。定慧圆明终不失。
日可冷。月可热。众魔不能坏真说。
象驾峥嵘慢进途。谁见螳螂能拒辙。
大象不游于兔经。大悟不拘于小节。
莫将管见谤苍苍。未了吾今为君诀。
 

     历史上，中国人在想方设法了解世界的时候，世界各地特别是遥远的西方也在想方设法了解中国。因此才产生了“汉学”这一门学问。中国人可能不那么在意“汉学”，甚至许多中国人还不知道有这一门学问。其实作为中国人了解一下“汉学”，看看人家外国人是怎么研究中国和中国人的，也是非常有意义的事情。很早以前，各国对中国的认识是支离破碎的，缺乏完整全面的认识，往往以对中国某一具体事物的了解为基础，形成对中国的称谓，有点像汉语语法中的“以局部代整体”，或“以特定代一般（全体）”，比如以陶瓷代指中国，以丝绸代指中国。随着历史的发展，这些称谓现在已大多弃之不用了，比如，“桃花石国”，现代中国人有多少知道自己的国家还曾经有过这样一个诗意的名字？有些还在沿用，比如世界各地的“唐人街”，就还在沿用“唐人”的称呼。在诸多称谓中，也有一些是对中国的贬称。“东亚病夫”这一蔑称也曾一度是专指中国人的。这些称谓中所包含的历史，我们不能忘记。本文系根据有关资料综合而成。

    1.Taugast（桃花石国）：一般音译作“桃花石国”，最早见于拜占庭历史家西摩卡塔的著作。据传“桃花石”为“大汉”的音转，乃匈奴和北方草原民族对汉帝国的称呼。西传到中亚、西亚过程中被各族政权所采用，指代中国的中原王朝，后为拜占庭史学家所采纳。   

    2.China（中国）：中国的英文名是China,陶瓷在英文中也是china。来源说法很多，有传为秦“Qin”的音转，亦有认为为景德镇旧称“昌南”的音译，不过最为可靠的当数源自梵文的“Cina”。

    3.Cina（支那国）：梵文对中国的称呼，汉文古书中多音译为“支那”或者“脂那”。原意指“智慧”，印度古代著名的《摩奴法典》（Manusmrti）曾将Cina与希腊并列，同称为文明富强之国度。梵文中许多与丝有关的字如Cinapatta（成捆的丝）以及Cinamsuka（丝衣服）等，皆以Cina这个字做成组成的部分。

    4.Seres(丝国)：也称塞里斯（或赛里斯），古希腊和罗马对中国及其居民的称呼，意思是“丝的”或者“丝来的地方”。长久以来，我国一直是世界上唯一能够造轻柔美丽丝绸的国家。汉代通过陆上和海上丝绸之路，向世界各国大量输出丝绸。有本西方史书记载，古罗马共和国末期的独裁者凯撒穿着中国丝绸袍子去看戏，引起了剧场的轰动，被认为是空前豪华的衣裳。 5.Kitay（契丹）：，俄语对中国的称呼，因宋朝年间，辽国强盛，斯拉夫人只知东方有契丹而不知有汉，故以“契丹”指代中国，后延续至今。

    6.Manzi（蛮子）：指中国南方。词源来自北方少数民族政权对南宋的称呼(小说《说岳全传》中的金兀术称南宋人为“南蛮子”，不为无据）。常见于元朝时期的西方人记载，比如《马可波罗游记》，自元代后便不再常用。

    7.Chink(清国人，中国佬)：源于清朝的“Ching ”，在英文的俚语中也是中国人的意思，但带有贬义的味道。因为，中国在清末时受尽欺辱，而中国人在外国人眼中也成了清国奴。

    8.Chinoiserie(中国风)：法语中的一个词，指18世纪中期非常流行的一种艺术风格。这种风格就是很多设计师和工匠大量采用中国题材，如中国服饰、龙、宝塔，结合艺术家想象创造出新形象。后来演化的意思较多，有古怪的，吹毛求疵的，繁琐；中国风格，中国工艺品；也有中国的，中国人的意思。

    9.Chinees(西内逊)：“西内逊”是荷兰语中专指华人的词，也含着对中国的贬义，这是由于那时中国的老弱、保守、落后。现在“西内逊”这个词的意义已仅有两个意思，一是指“到中国餐馆里去吃饭”，二指“中国人”。

    10.掌柜：韩国有种说法，19世纪初华侨到朝鲜之后，当地人曾用“掌柜”一词来代表中国，意思是中国人精于做生意，精于算计，也称中国人是“守财奴”，认为中国人挣钱不花。这个词在韩语中有些贬义，现已几乎不用。

    11.Nuoc Tau(船国)：越南民间有种说法，将中国说成是“船国”，将在越南居住的华人称为“三船”，大概意思是指中国人是坐船来越南的，而且中国的船舶制造业让越南人羡慕。

    12．Blue-Ant（蓝蚂蚁）：上世纪三四十年代在广大解放区流行“列宁装”、解放装。文革时期的服装，以军装和蓝、黑、灰、黄的单色调为主流，这种抹杀个性的政治化服装时尚被推向了极至。一时间，中国人的着装被外国人讥称为千篇一律的“蓝蚂蚁”、“灰蚂蚁”。

这个基金的网站是http://c3partners.org，信息并不算多，中英文都有，自己介绍称是“在联合国千年发展计划的伙伴合作目标倡议框架之下建立的。 我们致力于创建一种新的伙伴合作机制，最有效率的让私营产业，尤其是中国的私营产业，和联合国千年发展计划建立起紧密的联系。我们的目标就是帮助企业和联合国抓住其之间潜在的合作机会。”

查询域名注册信息得到结果是这个域名注册于2013年5月9日，网站地址在纽约20 pine street Apt 3004，域名所有人是lulu zhou，也就是facebook截图的第二个大姐，她的facebook地址是 https://www.facebook.com/lulu.zhou.182

由此可见lulu zhou是中国全球合作基金的重要人物，她在基金中的头衔是“Managing Partner”，这是youtube上她在基金一次活动中的演讲，地址：http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UUGjtbpudUQ 另外，在这次活动中，的确有联合国下属组织的官员参与发言，具体情况不得而知，是不是说明这个基金跟联合国关系密切也不好妄自菲薄。

托马斯·格雷

　　　　　　　　　　　　　墓园哀歌

　　　　　　　　晚钟敲响，为逝去的白昼辞灵，

　　　　　　　　　　牛群哞哞，缓步在蜿蜒的山谷，

　　　　　　　　农夫拖着疲惫脚步回转家门，

　　　　　　　　　　整个世界留给了我和那夜幕。

　　　　　　　　此刻，闪光的大地已渐渐隐去，

　　　　　　　　　　空气中弥漫着静寂，一派肃然，

　　　　　　　　唯有甲虫嗡嗡鸣叫，上下飞舞，

　　　　　　　　　　沉闷的铃声催眠远处的羊栏。

　　　　　　　　那边，常春藤覆盖的塔楼顶上

　　　　　　　　　　忧郁的夜枭朝月亮抱怨诉苦，

　　　　　　　　责怪有人走近她隐秘的闺房，

　　　　　　　　　　搅扰了她古老而僻静的领地。

　　　　　　　　苍老的榆树下，紫杉的浓荫里，

　　　　　　　　　　每块隆起的草皮即一座荒冢，

　　　　　　　　村子里粗俗无文的先考先妣，

　　　　　　　　　　永远安息在狭小的墓穴之中,

　　　　　　　　芳香的晨风吹起，轻声地呼喊，　

茅草盖就的小屋有呢喃的燕子，

公鸡喔喔长啼，号角震天价响，

都不能将他们从睡眠处唤起。

熊熊的炉火不再为他们燃烧，

　　勤劳的主妇不再为他们操心；

没有小孩跑来迎接长辈来到，

　　或爬上膝头，接受他们的亲吻。

想当年，他们的镰刀收获五谷，

　　他们的犁具剖开坚硬的泥土，

赶着耕牛下地，那是何等满足！

　　他们的斧子砍倒了多少树木！

雄心别嘲讽他们务实的操劳，

　　平常的欢愉，默默无闻的命运，

辉煌别嗤之以鼻，以轻蔑的笑

　　来聆听穷人平凡、短暂的生平。

令人夸口的门第，显赫的威权，

　　凡是美和财富能赋予的一切，

都逃不脱那不可避免的时限。

　　走向辉煌即意味着走向墓穴。

如果怀念没有为他们树碑立传，

　　为他们建造长廊和雕花的拱顶，

赞美歌没有飘荡在他们的墓前，

傲慢者啊，别因此将他们贬损。

记载事迹的古瓮，生动的肖像，

　　能否延续呼吸，让断气者还魂？

荣誉能否唤醒那沉默的尘壤？

　　谄媚能否软化那死神的耳根？

在这里被人遗忘的某个地方，

　　也许埋着一颗充满灵焰的心；

有一双手可以执掌国王权杖，

或者出神入化地拔响七弦琴。

　　　　　　　　只是世代积累的知识从不曾

　　　　　　　　　　在他们眼前展开厚重的书卷；

                　　　贫寒扼制了他们崇高的激情，

　　　　　　　　　　冻结了灵魂中那天赋的流泉。

　　　　不知有多少宝石纯净而晶莹，

                深埋在深不可测的幽暗海底：

            不知有多少鲜花世人所未见，

                徒然将芳香撒向广漠的天际。

　　　　　　也许这里埋着村野的汉普敦，

　　　　　　　　他无所畏惧，敢于跟恶少对抗；

　　　　　　有个弥尔顿，只不过默默无闻，

　　　　　　　　有个克伦威尔，但未招致内战[①]。

              　　　　 他们本可赢得众议员的欢呼，

　　　　　　　　　　藐视痛苦和毁灭的种种威逼，

　　　　　　　　把富饶撒向笑脸相迎的国土，

　　　　　　　　　　让全民阅读他们的丰功伟绩。

　　　　　　　　但命运不济：他们既无缘发挥

　　　　　　　　　　自身的美德，更不能任意胡行：

　　　　　　　　他们不能通过屠杀登上王位，

　　　　　　　　　　对人类从此关上仁慈的门庭。

　　　　　　　　他们不能昧着天良，孤行一意，

　　　　　　　　　　在纯粹的羞耻中而不知赧颜，

　　　　　　　　或者用缪斯的圣火点燃香烛，

　　　　　　　　　　堆砌起“奢侈”与“骄横”的神龛。

　　　　　　　　他们远离尘世间的尔诈我虞，

　　　　　　　　　　欲望清清白白，从不偏离正途；

　　　　　　　　沿着那与世隔绝的生命之谷，

　　　　　　　　　　他们悄然无声，只走自己的路。

　　　　　　　　为了防止这些尸骨遭人践踏，

　　　　　　　　　　墓穴附近还立有简陋的碑碣，

　　　　　　　　上面刻有拙劣的诗句和雕画，

　　　　　　　　　　以求过往的路人献一声叹息。

　　　　　　　　无文诗神记下了姓名和年份，

　　　　　　　　　　荣誉的称号和诔词均告阙如：

　　　　　　　　代之的是盲诗神涂鸦的经文，

　　　　　　　　　　教导乡村的卫道士如何临死。

              　　　  谁甘心将这喜忧参半的人生

　　　　　　　　　　作为牺牲奉献给沉默的遗忘？

　　　　　　　　谁愿意抛下其乐融融的天穹，

　　　　　　　　　　而不依依难舍，频频回头顾盼？

　　　　　　　　辞世的灵魂依恋亲人的怀抱，

　　　　　　　　　　临闭的眼睛需要哀悼的泪珠；

　　　　　　　　即便坟墓中也有自然的呼号，

　　　　　　　　　　逝者的火在生者的灰中延续。

　　　　　　　　至于你，此刻关注无名的死者，

　　　　　　　　　　用诗行陈述他们平凡的事迹，

　　　　　　　　将来某个乡亲――如果机缘巧合――

　　　　　　　　　　一旦心血来潮，问起你的身世。

　　　　　　　　那白发苍苍的乡民也许会说：

　　　　　　　　　　“在天光初露的早晨，我常看见

　　　　　　　　他踏着匆匆的脚步，碰落露珠，

　　　　　　　　　　　登上那边山冈，迎接太阳升起。

　　　　　　　　“那边，有株迎风晃动的山毛榉，

　　　　　　　　　　树下盘盘的老根高高地隆起，

　　　　　　　　他总要懒懒地躺上一个中午，

　　　　　　　　　　一边凝视汩汩流过的小溪。

　　　　　　　　“有时，他会苦笑着漫步在林间，

　　　　　　　　　　一边说些怪话，口中念念有词，

　　　　　　　　有时，又像个受挫者愁眉苦脸，

　　　　　　　　　　似乎满腹心事，又像情场失意。

              　　　  “有天上午，在他惯去的山坡上，

　　　　　　　　　　荒地里，大树下，不见他的踪影；

　　　　　　　　次日，无论小溪、草场，还是林间，

　　　　　　　　　　依然没有他的人影儿显现。

　　　　　　　　“第三天，挽歌响起，我们看见

　　　　　　　　　　送丧的行列抬着他穿过教堂。

　　　　　　　　（你认得字）不妨上前读读碑文，

　　　　　　　　　　诗句刻在荆棘丛下的石碑上。”

　　　　　　　　　　　　墓志铭

　　　　　　　　　他的头安枕在大地的膝盖上，

　　　　　　　　　　　这是个无产业无名望的青年。

　　　　　　　　　唯知识没有轻视他出身微寒，

　　　　　　　　　　　忧郁独独看上他，视他为金兰。

　　　　　　　　　此君为人慷慨大方，生性耿直，

　　　　　　　　　　　上苍给了他同样慷慨的报酬：

　　　　　　　　　他罄其所有，赠苦难一颗泪滴，

　　　　　　　　　　　上苍成全了他，还他一个朋友。　

　　　　　　　　　切莫挖空心思罗列他的优点，

　　　　　　　　　　　或刨根究底，将他的缺陷寻找，

　　　　　　　　　（它们也在惶恐的希望中长眠，）

　　　　　　　　　　　那是天上的父和上帝的怀抱。　

英语中怎样表达人与动物的“一群”?_fang_新浪博客

http://zhidao.baidu.com/link?url=Xm4N2BoUYTH7MVes5Vf_s3J0deOiE69WZxvFWdZDkUPV2Txlqe1e1-Ot6ZDcW-KRH3CdbUvCFNOpGsbjmD76zxFC-bzUXh5CdffsZj2ujAe

英语表示“一群”人或动物的一些用法 

汉语表示人或动物“一群”概念的量词译成英语，根据里词所修饰哪一种人或哪一类动物的不同而有不同的译法，下面介绍关于“a(an)或the十表示量的名词+of+表示人或动物的名词”形式的一些习惯用法，其中有不少搭配是很形象生动的，熟识这些用法，对英汉互译及这些量词的使用很有好处。 

1. 量词修饰人 

An army of 大队、大群，例如: 

an army of workmen. 一群工人 

A band of 指在某人指挥下为共同的目标而一起做某事的一伙人，例如: 

a band of robbers. 一帮强盗 

A batch of 一批，一群人(尤指引人注目的一群人)，例如: 

a batch of recruits一群新兵 

A body of 在一起做某事或以某种方式聚合的一群人，例如: 

a body of unemployed men一群失业者 

A company of 为了某目的而在一起的一群人，例如: 

a company of travellers一群旅客 

A crowd of 大群人(没有组织的、散乱的一群人)。例如: 

a crowd of applicants一群申请人 

A galaxy of 显赫有名的一群人，例如: 

a galaxy of talents一群才子 

A gang of

1）一起工作的人群，例如:

a gang of slaves一群奴隶，

2）尤指有犯罪企图者或为说话者所不满者的一伙人，例如: 

a gang of criminals 一群罪犯 

A group of 一群人(有自由组合之意)，例如: 

a group of girls一群女孩 

A ring of (为私利而结合在一起的) 集团，例如: 

a ring of spectators (围成一圈的) 一群观众，

a ring of smugglers一帮走私者 

A row of 排成一行的人，例如: 

a row of soldiers一行士兵 

A throng of 一(大)群，例如: 

a throng of passengers 一大群乘客 

A tribe of 含贬义，指同类或同一职业的众人，例如: 

a tribe of parasites一伙寄生虫 

2. 量词修饰动物 

A brood of 一窝卵生动物所孵的幼雏，例如: 

a brood of chickens一窝小鸡 

A cloud of 飞行在空中的一群小东西，例如: 

a cloud of flies (locusts) 一群苍蝇 (蝗虫) 

A draught of一网所得之鱼，例如: 

a draught of fish一网鱼 

A flight of 飞行的鸟群，例如: 

a flight of swallows一队飞燕 

A herd of 一起吃食或行走的兽群，尤指牛群，例如: 

a herd of cattle (deer，elephants) 牛(鹿、象)群 

A litter of一胎所生的小兽，例如: 

a litter of pigs (puppies)一窝猪崽(小狗) 

A school of 共游的鱼群、同类水生物群，例如: 

a school of whales鲸鱼群 

A shoal of共游的鱼群，例如: a shoal of herring鲱鱼群 

3. 量词修饰人或动物 

A cluster of 小群人或动物，例如: 

a cluster of spectators (bees) 小群观众(蜜蜂) 

A colony of  1) 来自他国聚居在一起，或同行业并生活在一起的一群人，例如: 

a colony of artists 一批艺术家 

2) 群居在一起的动物，例如:

a colony of ants蚁群 

A flock of  1) 一群人，例如: 

a flock of visitors 一群访问者， 

2) 一起吃食或行



走(或飞行)的兽群、鸟群，尤指羊群，例如: 

a flock of sheep (goats，rabbits，geese，sparrows，blackbirds) 绵羊 (山羊、兔子、鹅、麻雀、山鸟) 群 

A horde of 1) 轻慈语: 一群、大群，例如: 

a horde of people大群人，

2) 众多，例如: 

a horde of locusts许多蝗虫 

A pack of 1) 轻蔑语: 一群人，例如: 

a pack of thieves (liars) 一群贼 (骗子)，

2) 狗或野兽群，例如: 

a pack of hounds (wolves) 一群猎犬(狼) 

A swarm of 1)人群，例如: 

a swarm of sightseers大群游客，

2)昆虫群，尤指蜂群，例如: 

a swarm of bees (ants，mosquitoes) 一群蜜蜂(妈蚁、蚊子) 

A troop of 一群人或动物，尤指行进中的，例如: 

a troop of schoolchildren (antelopes)一群学童(羚羊) 

从以上所列可看出，表示“一群”概念的量词，英语表达颇为讲究，稍不注意就不能准确地表达正确的意义，甚至弄错。

a drift

　　历史上不乏这样的读书人：满嘴仁义道德，暗地里却蝇营狗苟；写文章下笔千言，但治国之策却荒谬不已；谈爱国声泪俱下，但转脸便卖国求荣。在历史教科书及影视、文学中，一向被吹捧为伟人的康有为便是其中之一。卸下公车上书的领导者、伟大的爱国主义思想家以及维新运动的领袖等光环，一个凡人形象便逐渐清晰。

《新学伪经考》抄袭《今古学考》

　　康有为早年政治抱负极大，但治学急功近利，了无建树。1882年，他第一次赴京科考落榜，归途路经上海，阅读了大量西方书籍，接触了进化论和西方的政治观点。1888年，康有为第二次入京参加科考，又以失败而告终。而立之年的康有为仕途坎坷，而且没有像样的学术成果问世。

　　对康有为学问思想影响最大的人当属张之洞的门生廖平。廖平将其著作《今古学考》分为《辟刘篇》和《知圣篇》。由于张之洞的政治顾虑，这两部书稿并没有出版。据廖平回忆，1888年康有为二次赴京科考时曾拜访他，他亦曾将《辟刘篇》手稿拿给康有为阅览。

　　后来二人又有约谈，廖平是否也将《知圣篇》手稿交给康，暂时没有详细史料可考，但一年后，康有为出版了《孔子改制考》，思想观点与廖平的《辟刘篇》、《知圣篇》几乎完全相同。廖平指责康有为剽窃他的书稿，康有为不以为然。随后，《新学伪经考》出版，观点仍与廖平著作类似，廖平由此大怒。

　　史学界对于康有为对廖平著作的“借鉴”是否到了“抄袭”的程度，一直没有定论。钱穆、朱维铮等史家倾向于康有为确有抄袭的行为。康有为做学问的目的是为了政治前途，因此态度并不严谨。廖平认为，一部洋洋20万言的学术著作《新学伪经考》，不可能5个月就写出来。除了抄袭廖平著作的嫌疑外，这部书还有一个问题，即并非康有为一人所作，而是在他一众弟子的协助下编写的。（见张建伟：《温故戊戌年》）

走后门摆平《新学伪经考》弹劾案

　　康有为的言论中，处处彰显“吾不出山，奈苍生何”的士大夫责任感，以及“为万世开太平”的豪迈气质。在后人眼中，他是无视权贵、大义凛然的正人君子和刚直不阿、忠君爱国的改革家。然而，史料背后的康有为却有另一副面孔。

　　仕途不顺的康有为一直没有中断在京的政治活动。这些政治活动有两方面内容：一是攀附权贵，请求政治推荐；二是打着爱国救亡的幌子，向各级官僚筹钱。

　　为攀附翁同龢，康有为游历北京时写作了《广艺舟双楫》一书，将翁同龢父子吹捧为大书法家。翁同龢因此接见了康有为，还将他推荐给了光绪皇帝。除了攀附高官外，他每次进京都会给各级京官写信讨钱。若有人给他十二两银子，他就称其为“大贤”；给他八两、四两，他就称其为“大君子”。（见梁鼎芬：《康有为事实》）

　　康有为的结交权贵、四方筹钱的政治活动为他摆平《新学伪经考》弹劾案起到了至关重要的作用。《新学伪经考》流入京师后引起了较大的社会骚动。1894年，御史安维峻以“惑世诬民，非圣无法”弹劾康有为。弹劾语气很重，朝廷较为重视，让两广总督李瀚章查办。

　　康有为让梁启超在京“多方奔走”，最终摆平了这件事。该案的结果是，两广总督让康有为自行焚毁《新学伪经考》。（见丁文江、赵丰田：《梁启超年谱长编》）一桩“谋逆”大案，以自行焚毁书籍了结，让人震惊。梁启超的“多方奔走”居功至伟。

　　然而，到底是如何“多方奔走”的，康梁师徒只字未提。从梁启超的信件中，史家发现，所谓的“多方奔走”就是“花钱走后门”。当时，梁启超运作过的人有：帝师翁同龢、直隶总督李鸿章、两广总督李瀚章、广东学政徐琪、翁同龢的高徒张謇。（张建伟：《温故戊戌年》）

公车未曾上书，改革措施粗糙。

　　提到戊戌变法，首先会让人想到康有为领导的公车上书。康有为在《康南海自编年谱》中提到，他领导18省举人上书，结果被督察院阻挠。然而，据康有为的弟子徐勤回忆，康有为确实写了“书”，举人们也的确开了会，但最终并没有上书。（见徐勤：《南海先生四上书记》）

　　康有为之所以没有上书，一个重要的原因是，当时他得知自己已经考中了进士，担心上书会耽误前程。与康有为的行为形成鲜明对比的是，当时有大量官员上书，也有大量的公车上书。据后世统计，“公车上书”大大小小一共有31次之多，而这其中并没有康有为的那一次。对这些上书，督察院不仅没有阻挠，而是表示支持。康有为不仅伪造了历史，还污蔑了都察院。（见黄健章：《戊戌变法史研究》）

　　康有为一直认为，慈禧等保守派阻碍了改革。然而，事实并非如此。甲午战争失败后，大清朝野都呼吁变法。关于新政，慈禧太后给光绪皇帝的指示是：“变法乃吾素志。凡所实行之新政，但不违背祖宗大法，无损满洲权势，即不阻止，儿可自为之。”正是慈禧的这个表态开启了戊戌变法。（张建伟：《温故戊戌年》）可以说，变法一开始并未受到慈禧等所谓“保守派”的太大阻力，也没有康有为后来所称的“帝党”、“后党”，而只有“母子党”。

　　慈禧之所以后来反对变法，实际上是康有为变法政策过于激进造成的。戊戌年正月，康有为请人代他上了《统筹全局折》，呼吁皇帝在内廷设立制度局，作为维新变法的机构。制度局下设的机构几乎囊括了一切政府事务。康有为认为，可以让朝廷大臣担任制度局总裁，但下设机构应该选维新派的通才担任。

　　康有为的这个建议是利用制度局架空六部，这让朝臣极为警惕，该建议未被采纳。此后，他又起草了《保荐人才折》，让徐致靖上书皇帝。这个折子的大义是，皇帝应把康有为安排在身旁做顾问，让康总揽全国大权。光绪皇帝很快做了批示，要求召见康有为。

　　面圣前，康有为遇到了保举过他的当朝权臣荣禄。当荣禄问实行了一两百年的法如何说变就变时，康有为的回答是，杀一两个阻挠新政的二品以上的大臣，法就变了。（王照：《方家园杂咏纪事》）这与他的“断发、易服、改元、迁都”的激进观点如出一辙。

　　据康有为回忆，光绪召见他的谈话共持续了2个半小时，皇帝接受了他的变法建议。（见康有为：《康南海自编年谱》）然而，这是光绪第一次也是最后一次召见他。后人的研究认为，康有为在接见时间上撒了谎，光绪与他的谈话时间不过一个小时（马勇：《晚清二十年》）。在他们的谈话过程中，光绪只是肯定了康有为的发言，但没有给他升官，只是把他从六品工部主事的职务调整为同样是六品的总理事务衙门章京上行走。可见，光绪皇帝并没有重用康有为。

　　在变法的过程中，康有为一直向光绪售卖自己“大变、全变、骤变”的变法思想。朝野同意康有为“全面改革论”和“速成改革论”的只有他康有为一人。（张建伟：《温故戊戌年》）

幻想中日合邦，借重伊藤博文。

　　戊戌变法中，康有为提出的变法建议都有急功近利的毛病，希望靠变法马上实现强国梦想。他最极致的表现是鼓吹“中日合邦”。戊戌年四月，康有为曾就“中日合邦”问题与日本政客矢野文雄开过讨论会（见康有为：《康南海自编年谱》）。不仅如此，康有为还试图劝说光绪帝邀请日本前首相伊藤博文来华主导变法。

　　当时的中国人对伊藤博文并不陌生。就在几年前，在日本首相任上，伊藤博文发动了中日甲午战争。中国战败后签订了《马关条约》，赔偿日本2亿两白银，并割让台湾岛及其附属各岛屿、澎湖列岛与辽东半岛给日本。经此一役，中日国运逆转，日本凭借中国支付的战争赔款（相当于日本当时几十年的政府财政收入）而走上了发展的快车道，中国则从此一蹶不振。

　　康党的“中日合邦”理论来自森本藤吉1893年写的《大东合邦论》。森本藤吉是长期在华活动的日本政客。日本后来出台的“中韩合邦”、“大东亚共荣圈”政策也都来自森本藤吉的这套理论。

　　戊戌年七月，刑部主事洪汝冲上书光绪皇帝，提出“迁都、借才、联邦”的建议。所谓“借才”，指的是聘请东西各国名士参与新政并委以实权，首推伊藤博文；所谓联邦，本意是中日两国合并为一国，像德国那样形成合众国，只是奏折中表意有些含糊。据史学家孔祥吉《康有为变法奏章辑考》考证，此奏章很可能是康有为代拟的。

　　同时，康有为联合英国传教士李提摩太，向光绪鼓吹“中英合邦”、“中日英合邦”。（见张建伟：《温故戊戌年》）从康有为建议邀请西方名士主政改革看，这种合邦并非外交结盟，而是政治合并。如果说汪精卫是在日本人的诱降政策下，半推半就与日本人合作的，那么在汪精卫之前40年，康有为是主动与日本合作，推行类似后来“大东亚共荣”的政策。

　　康有为的卖国政策引起了慈禧太后的极大不满。在这个节骨眼上，伊藤博文来访，康有为、光绪皇帝先后会见伊藤。这种内外勾结的行为，触动了慈禧太后的敏感神经，直接导致了戊戌政变的爆发。（见郭霞：《伊藤博文访华与戊戌政变》）

利用伪诏募款，晚年生活奢靡。

　　慈禧太后不支持变法后，光绪陷入不利处境。于是，他让杨锐带给“军机四卿”一封《密诏》，大意是，如今自己的位置可能不保，希望他们不要违背太后的旨意，想办法保全皇帝。这封《密诏》里并没有提到康有为。

　　光绪另有一封《密诏》让林旭带给康有为，大意是，让他迅速离京。康有为将光绪给“军机四卿”的《密诏》篡改为皇帝说自己位置不保，希望谭嗣同等人设法相救。之后，康有为又命谭嗣同拿《密诏》夜访袁世凯，策划“围园杀后”阴谋。（见王照：《关于戊戌政变之新史料》）最终，阴谋失败。这也是中学历史书上袁世凯的一大“污点”——出卖谭嗣同等君子。其实站在袁世凯的角度看，与他人谋反，刺杀领导人，这种要掉脑袋并且成功率不太高的事，实在没必要冒险去做。

　　戊戌政变爆发，谭嗣同、杨锐、林旭、刘光第等“军机四卿”被抓。同时下令抓捕的还有康有为及他的弟弟康广仁。结果康有为因为提前到了天津，听闻政变失败立刻出逃而躲过一劫，只负责通风报信的康广仁则被抓捕。连同与康有为联系密切的杨深秀，一共六人，在被捕三天后押赴菜市口砍头，史称“戊戌六君子”。这一切，康有为是后来才得知的。当时他坐上出逃的轮船时，心情颇为轻松。史书记载，康有为在烟台停留期间，逛了近处风光，在海边捡了贝壳，还买了六篓烟台苹果准备路上吃。

　　戊戌政变后，康有为、梁启超和王照流亡日本，继续政治活动。参与“围园杀后”阴谋的人中，只有康梁师徒尚且在世，其他人都已被杀。唯一可能泄露天机的是谭嗣同临死前写下的《狱中题壁》一诗。这首诗的原文是，“望门投趾思张俭，直谏陈书愧杜根。手掷欧刀仰天笑，留将公罪后人论。”。诗中的“掷刀”与“公罪”透露了康党的“围园杀后”阴谋。到日本后，康有为授意，梁启超执笔，将诗改为“望门投宿思张俭，忍死须臾待杜根。我自横刀向天笑，去留肝胆两昆仑。”改后的诗，留下了慷慨赴死的豪情，但抹去了政治阴谋的痕迹。（见黄健章：《戊戌变法史研究》）

　　从1898年到1913年，康有为流亡海外15年。他靠伪造的光绪《密诏》成立保皇会，号称有百万人参加。他俨然成了光绪皇帝在海外的钦差。他借此在世界各地招摇撞骗，获得了当地华人的大量捐款。

　　利用这些捐款，他开公司、办实业、炒股、炒房，甚至还在墨西哥炒过一段时间地皮。康有为公私不分，将大量款项用于“周游列国”。周游列国的过程中，康有为住豪华酒店，吃喝用度奢靡。

　　他甚至以此款购买了不少中外文物、古董，据为己有。回国后，康有为广造精舍，在上海、青岛、杭州的花园别墅颐养天年。他一家老小十几口人，有几十位仆人伺候，包括印度仆人。他们家每年下来需要两万银元的花费。这些钱多来自康有为在海外靠保皇会筹到的救国款项。（见李从吾：《康有为：虚伪丑陋的圣人》）

　　人是复杂的动物，这一点在康有为身上表现得尤为突出。他满腹诗书，却抄袭他人著作；宣扬仁义道德，却大肆聚敛海外华人财富；宣扬一夫一妻，一生却娶过六个妻子；一生宣称忠于光绪，却拿着伪造的光绪诏书欺骗他人，并间接造成了光绪的悲惨结局；力图变法报国，却把本来支持变法的慈禧推向了反对变法的一边。

　　康有为身上反映出来的这种中国知识分子的两面性，是士大夫情怀与商业社会影响交织的通病。一百年来，留在世人心中的康有为，是神化了的政治符号，是近代以来中国弱国心态下造神运动的自然结果。严格地说，康有为“封圣”，不是康有为骗了当代人，而是当代人自欺欺人。

中华人民共和国物权法
 Real Right Law of the People’s Republic of China
 
中华人民共和国主席令第62号
 Order of the President of the People’s Republic of China No. 62
 《中华人民共和国物权法》已由中华人民共和国第十届全国人民代表大会第五次会议于2007年3月16日通过，现予公布，自2007年10月1日起施行。 中华人民共和国主席 胡锦涛 二○○七年三月十六日
 The Real Right Law of the People’s Republic of China has been adopted at the 5th session of the Tenth National People’s Congress on March 16, 2007. It is hereby promulgated and shall go into effect as of October 1, 2007. President of the People’s Republic of China Hu Jintao March 16, 2007
 目　录
 Contents
 第一编 总则
 Part I General Rules
 第一章 基本原则
 Chapter I Basic Principles
 第二章 物权的设立、变更、转让和消灭
 Chapter II Creation, Alternation, Alienation and Termination of Real Right
 第一节 不动产登记
 Section 1 Reality Registration
 第二节 动产交付
 Section 2 Chattel Delivery
 第三节 其他规定
 Section 3 Other Rules
 第三章 物权的保护
 Chapter III Protection of Real Right
 第二编 所有权
 Part II Ownership
 第四章 一般规定
 Chapter IV General Rules
 第五章 国家所有权和集体所有权、私人所有权
 Chapter V State Ownership, Collective Ownership and Private Ownership
 第六章 业主的建筑物区分所有权
 Chapter VI Owners’ Partitioned Ownership of Building Areas
 第七章 相邻关系
 Chapter VII Neighboring Relationship
 第八章 共有
 Chapter VIII Common Ownership
 第九章 所有权取得的特别规定
 Chapter IX Special Rules on Acquiring Ownership
 第三编 用益物权
 Part III Usufructuary Rights
 第十章 一般规定
 Chapter X General Rules
 第十一章 土地承包经营权
 Chapter XI Right to the Contracted Management of Land
 第十二章 建设用地使用权
 Chapter XII Right to Use Construction Land
 第十三章 宅基地使用权
 Chapter XIII Right to Use House Sites
 第十四章 地役权
 Chapter XIV Easement
 第四编 担保物权
 Part IV Real Rights for Security
 第十五章 一般规定
 Chapter XV General Rules
 第十六章 抵押权
 Chapter XVI Mortgage Right
 第一节 一般抵押权
 Section 1 General Mortgage Right
 第二节 最高额抵押权
 Section 2 Mortgage Right at Maximum Amount
 第十七章 质权
 Chapter XVII Pledge Right
 第一节 动产质权
 Section 1 Chattel Pledge
 第二节 权利质权
 Section 2 Right Pledge
 第十八章 留置权
 Chapter XVIII Lien
 第五编 占有
 Part V Possession
 第十九章 占有
 Chapter XIX Possession
 附则
 Supplementary Rules
 第一编 总则
 Part I General Rules
 第一章 基本原则
 Chapter I Basic Principles
 第一条 为了维护国家基本经济制度，维护社会主义市场经济秩序，明确物的归属，发挥物的效用，保护权利人的物权，根据宪法，制定本法。
 Article 1 In accordance with the Constitution Law, the present Law is enacted with a view to maintaining the basic economic system of the state, protecting the socialist market economic order, clearly defining the attribution of the res, bringing into play the utilities of the res and safeguarding the real right of the right holder.
 第二条 因物的归属和利用而产生的民事关系，适用本法。
 Article 2 The civil relationships incurred from the attribution and utilization of the res shall be governed by the present Law.
 本法所称物，包括不动产和动产。法律规定权利作为物权客体的，依照其规定。
 The term “res” as mentioned in the present Law means realties and chattels. Where it is prescribed in any provision that certain right shall be taken as an object of real right, such provision shall be applicable.
 本法所称物权，是指权利人依法对特定的物享有直接支配和排他的权利，包括所有权、用益物权和担保物权。
 The term “real right” as mentioned in the present Law means the exclusive right of direct control over a specific res enjoyed by the holder in accordance with law, including ownership, usufractuary right and real rights for security.
 第三条 国家在社会主义初级阶段，坚持公有制为主体、多种所有制经济共同发展的基本经济制度。
 Article 3 In the primary phase of socialism, the state adheres to the basic economic system with the public ownership playing a dominant role and diverse forms of ownership developing side by side.
 国家巩固和发展公有制经济，鼓励、支持和引导非公有制经济的发展。
 The public economy shall be consolidated and developed by the state, and the development of the nonpublic economy shall be encouraged, supported and guided.
 国家实行社会主义市场经济，保障一切市场主体的平等法律地位和发展权利。
 The socialist market economy system shall be practiced by the state as well as the equal legal status and development rights of all market subjects shall be protected.
 第四条 国家、集体、私人的物权和其他权利人的物权受法律保护，任何单位和个人不得侵犯。
 Article 4 The real right of the state, collective, individual or any other right holder shall be protected by law, and may not be damaged by any entity or individual.
 第五条 物权的种类和内容，由法律规定。
 Article 5 The varieties and contents of real rights shall be prescribed by law.
 第六条 不动产物权的设立、变更、转让和消灭，应当依照法律规定登记。动产物权的设立和转让，应当依照法律规定交付。
 Article 6 The creation, alteration, alienation or termination of the real right of a realty shall be subject to registration in accordance with law. The creation or alienation of the real right of a chattel shall be delivered in accordance with law.
 第七条 物权的取得和行使，应当遵守法律，尊重社会公德，不得损害公共利益和他人合法权益。
 Article 7 One shall, when acquiring or exercising a real right, comply with the law, respect social morals and may not infringe upon the public interests or the lawful rights and interests of any other person.
 第八条 其他相关法律对物权另有特别规定的，依照其规定。
 Article 8 In case there exists any other special provision in respect of real right in any other law, such special provision shall prevail.
 第二章 物权的设立、变更、转让和消灭
 Chapter II Creation, Alteration, Alienation and Termination of Real Right
 第一节 不动产登记
 Section 1 Reality Registration
 第九条 不动产物权的设立、变更、转让和消灭，经依法登记，发生效力；未经登记，不发生效力，但法律另有规定的除外。
 Article 9 Until it is registered in accordance with law, the creation, alteration, alienation or termination of the real right of a realty shall come into effect; unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law, it shall have no effect if it is not registered in accordance with law.
 依法属于国家所有的自然资源，所有权可以不登记。
 As regards the ownership of the natural resources owned by the state in accordance with law, the registration is not required.
 第十条 不动产登记，由不动产所在地的登记机构办理。
 Article 10 The registration of a realty shall be handled by the registration organ at the locality of the realty.
 国家对不动产实行统一登记制度。统一登记的范围、登记机构和登记办法，由法律、行政法规规定。
 A uniform registration system over realties shall be practiced by the state. The scope, organ and measures of uniform registration shall be specified by the related laws and administrative regulations.
 第十一条 当事人申请登记，应当根据不同登记事项提供权属证明和不动产界址、面积等必要材料。
 Article 11 In light of the different registration items, an applicant shall, when applying for the registration of a realty, provide the ownership certificate of the realty and such necessary materials as the [] and area of the realty.
 第十二条 登记机构应当履行下列职责：
 Article 12 A registration organ shall perform the duties as follows:
 （一） 查验申请人提供的权属证明和其他必要材料；
 (1) to examine the ownership certificate and other necessary materials as provided by the applicant;
 （二） 就有关登记事项询问申请人；
 (2) to inquire the applicant about the registration items concerned;
 （三） 如实、及时登记有关事项；
 (3) to register the related items in accordance with the facts and in a timely manner; and
 （四） 法律、行政法规规定的其他职责。
 (4) other duties as provided for in any law or administrative regulation.
 申请登记的不动产的有关情况需要进一步证明的，登记机构可以要求申请人补充材料，必要时可以实地查看。
 In case the related situation of the realty under application for registration needs further proving, the registration organ may request the applicant to provide supplementary materials and conduct on-the-spot inspection where necessary.
 第十三条 登记机构不得有下列行为：
 Article 13 No registration organ may commit any of the behaviors as follows:
 （一） 要求对不动产进行评估；
 (1) to ask for an evaluation of a realty;
 （二） 以年检等名义进行重复登记；
 (2) to repeatedly register registration in the name of annual inspection; or
 （三） 超出登记职责范围的其他行为。
 (3) other behaviors conducted beyond its scope of registration duties.
 第十四条 不动产物权的设立、变更、转让和消灭，依照法律规定应当登记的，自记载于不动产登记簿时发生效力。
 Article 14 As regards the creation, alteration, alienation or termination of the real right of a realty, it shall go into effect since the date when it is recorded in the realty register in case the registration thereof is required by law.
 第十五条 当事人之间订立有关设立、变更、转让和消灭不动产物权的合同，除法律另有规定或者合同另有约定外，自合同成立时生效；未办理物权登记的，不影响合同效力。
 Article 15 As regards a contract entered into by the related parties concerned on the creation, alteration, alienation or termination of the real right of a realty, it shall go into effect upon the conclusion of the contract, unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law; and the validity of the contract is not affected, whether the real right has been registered or not.
 第十六条 不动产登记簿是物权归属和内容的根据。不动产登记簿由登记机构管理。
 Article 16 The realty register shall be the basis for deciding the ownership and contents of a realty and shall be under the management of the registration organ.
 第十七条 不动产权属证书是权利人享有该不动产物权的证明。不动产权属证书记载的事项，应当与不动产登记簿一致；记载不一致的，除有证据证明不动产登记簿确有错误外，以不动产登记簿为准。
 Article 17 The realty ownership certificate shall be the evidence for the holder’s ownership of a realty. The items recorded in the realty ownership certificate shall accord with those recorded in the realty register; unless it is proved that there is anything wrong in the realty register, the one recorded therein shall prevail in the case of any inconsistence.
 第十八条 权利人、利害关系人可以申请查询、复制登记资料，登记机构应当提供。
 Article 18 Any right holder or interested party may file an application for consulting or copying the registration materials, and the registration organ may not reject.
 第十九条 权利人、利害关系人认为不动产登记簿记载的事项错误的，可以申请更正登记。不动产登记簿记载的权利人书面同意更正或者有证据证明登记确有错误的，登记机构应当予以更正。
 Article 19 In case any right holder or interested party holds that there is anything wrong in any item recorded in the realty register, it/he may apply for a correction of the registration. The registration organ shall revise the registration accordingly, in case the holder recorded in the realty register agrees to revise the registration in written form or there is evidence to prove that the registration is wrong.
 不动产登记簿记载的权利人不同意更正的，利害关系人可以申请异议登记。登记机构予以异议登记的，申请人在异议登记之日起十五日内不起诉，异议登记失效。异议登记不当，造成权利人损害的，权利人可以向申请人请求损害赔偿。
 The interested party may apply for dissidence registration, in case the holder recorded in the realty register does not agree to the alteration. Where the registration organ grants the dissidence registration but the applicant fails to lodge an action within 15 days as of the date of dissidence registration, the dissidence registration shall lose its effect. In case the dissidence registration is improper and bring into damages to the right holder, the holder may require the applicant to compensate for damages.
 第二十条 当事人签订买卖房屋或者其他不动产物权的协议，为保障将来实现物权，按照约定可以向登记机构申请预告登记。预告登记后，未经预告登记的权利人同意，处分该不动产的，不发生物权效力。
 Article 20 In case the related parties entered into a purchase agreement on a premise or the real right of any other realty, they may apply for advance notice registration to the registration organ so as to ensure the realization of the real right in the future. Without the consent of the holder in the advance notice registration, any disposal of the realty, after the advance notice registration, may not produce effect of real right.
 预告登记后，债权消灭或者自能够进行不动产登记之日起三个月内未申请登记的，预告登记失效。
 In case the obligee’s right is terminated after the advance notice registration is made, or the application for the registration of the realty is not filed within 3 months as of the date when it can be registered, the advance notice registration shall lose its effect.
 第二十一条 当事人提供虚假材料申请登记，给他人造成损害的，应当承担赔偿责任。
 Article 21 In case any related party provides false materials for applying for registration and causes damages to any other person, it/he shall assume the liability for compensation.
 因登记错误，给他人造成损害的，登记机构应当承担赔偿责任。登记机构赔偿后，可以向造成登记错误的人追偿。
 In case any registration organ causes damages to any other person by virtue of any mistake in registration, it shall assume the liability for compensation. The registration organ may, after making the compensation, recover the amount from the person who causes the registration mistake.
 第二十二条 不动产登记费按件收取，不得按照不动产的面积、体积或者价款的比例收取。具体收费标准由国务院有关部门会同价格主管部门规定。
 Article 22 Realty registration fees shall be charged on each piece, and may not be charged on the basis of the size, volume or certain proportion of the realty’s value. The concrete charging rates shall be formulated by the related departments in the State Council in collaboration with the competent pricing department.
 第二节 动产交付
 Section 2 Chattel Delivery
 第二十三条 动产物权的设立和转让，自交付时发生效力，但法律另有规定的除外。
 Article 23 Unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law, the creation or alienation of the real right of a chattel shall come into effect upon delivery.
 第二十四条 船舶、航空器和机动车等物权的设立、变更、转让和消灭，未经登记，不得对抗善意第三人。
 Article 24 The creation, alteration, alienation or termination of the real right of any vessel, aircraft or motor vehicle and so on may not challenge any bona fide third party if it is not registered.
 第二十五条 动产物权设立和转让前，权利人已经依法占有该动产的，物权自法律行为生效时发生效力。
 Article 25 In case the right holder has legally possessed the chattel prior to the establishment or alienation of a chattel’s real right, the real right shall come into effect upon the effectiveness of the legal act.
 第二十六条 动产物权设立和转让前，第三人依法占有该动产的，负有交付义务的人可以通过转让请求第三人返还原物的权利代替交付。
 Article 26 In case a third party has legally possessed the chattel prior to the establishment or alienation of a chattel’s real right, the person assuming the obligation of delivery may, instead of delivery, alien the right to request the third party to return the original object.
 第二十七条 动产物权转让时，双方又约定由出让人继续占有该动产的，物权自该约定生效时发生效力。
 Article 27 In case both parties agree to let the alienator continuously possess the chattel when the real right of a chattel is alienated, the real right shall go into effect upon the effectiveness of the agreement.
 第三节 其他规定
 Section 3 Other Rules
 第二十八条 因人民法院、仲裁委员会的法律文书或者人民政府的征收决定等，导致物权设立、变更、转让或者消灭的，自法律文书或者人民政府的征收决定等生效时发生效力。
 Article 28 In case the creation, alteration, alienation or termination of a real right is resulted from a legal document of the people’s court or arbitration committee or a requisition decision of the people’s government, etc, the real right shall come into effect upon the effectiveness of the legal document or the requisition decision of the people’s government.
 第二十九条 因继承或者受遗赠取得物权的，自继承或者受遗赠开始时发生效力。
 Article 29 In case real right is acquired through inheritance or bequest, it shall go into effect as of the beginning time of the inheritance or bequest.
 第三十条 因合法建造、拆除房屋等事实行为设立或者消灭物权的，自事实行为成就时发生效力。
 Article 30 In case a real right is created or terminated as a result of such factual behaviors as the legal construction or premise demolition, it shall come into effect upon the accomplishment of the factual behavior.
 第三十一条 依照本法第二十八条至第三十条规定享有不动产物权的，处分该物权时，依照法律规定需要办理登记的，未经登记，不发生物权效力。
 Article 31 As regards a real right of realty enjoyed according to the provisions of Articles 28 through 30 of the present Law, any disposal thereof may not produce effect of real right until it is registered as required by law.
 第三章 物权的保护
 Chapter III Protection of Real Right
 第三十二条 物权受到侵害的，权利人可以通过和解、调解、仲裁、诉讼等途径解决。
 Article 32 Where a real right is damaged, the right holder may settle the problem by means of conciliation, mediation or arbitration, etc.
 第三十三条 因物权的归属、内容发生争议的，利害关系人可以请求确认权利。
 Article 33 Where any dispute over the ownership or content of real right arises, the interested parties may require the confirmation of the right.
 第三十四条 无权占有不动产或者动产的，权利人可以请求返还原物。
 Article 34 Where a realty or chattel is under an unauthorized possession, the right holder may require the returning of the original object.
 第三十五条 妨害物权或者可能妨害物权的，权利人可以请求排除妨害或者消除危险。
 Article 35 In case a real right is under obstruction or may be obstructed, the right holder may require the removing of the impediment or the termination of the danger.
 第三十六条 造成不动产或者动产毁损的，权利人可以请求修理、重作、更换或者恢复原状。
 Article 36 In case a realty or chattel is damaged, the right holder may require the repairing, remaking, changing or the restoration of the original state.
 第三十七条 侵害物权，造成权利人损害的，权利人可以请求损害赔偿，也可以请求承担其他民事责任。
 Article 37 In case the infringement upon a real right causes losses to the right holder, the right holder may require the compensation for the losses or the assuming of any other civil liability.
 第三十八条 本章规定的物权保护方式，可以单独适用，也可以根据权利被侵害的情形合并适用。
 Article 38 The ways for protecting real right as prescribed in the present Law may apply either independently or jointly in light of the specific situation of an injury of real right.
 侵害物权，除承担民事责任外，违反行政管理规定的，依法承担行政责任；构成犯罪的，依法追究刑事责任。
 In addition to assuming civil liabilities, any entity or individual infringing upon a real right shall assume the administrative liabilities where it/he violates any provision on administrative regulation; in case any crime is established, it/he shall assume the criminal liabilities.
 第二编 所有权
 Part II Ownership
 第四章 一般规定
 Chapter IV General Rules
 第三十九条 所有权人对自己的不动产或者动产，依法享有占有、使用、收益和处分的权利。
 Article 39 The owner of a realty or chattel is entitled to possess, utilize, seek profits from and dispose of the realty or chattel in accordance with law.
 第四十条 所有权人有权在自己的不动产或者动产上设立用益物权和担保物权。用益物权人、担保物权人行使权利，不得损害所有权人的权益。
 Article 40 The owner of a realty or chattel is entitled to establish a usufructuary right or real right for security over the realty or chattel. The holder of usufructuary right or the holder of real right for security may, when exercising the right, not injure the owner ‘s rights and interests.
 第四十一条 法律规定专属于国家所有的不动产和动产，任何单位和个人不能取得所有权。
 Article 41 As regards a realty or chattel that is exclusively owned by the state as prescribed by law, its ownership may not be acquired by any entity or individual.
 第四十二条 为了公共利益的需要，依照法律规定的权限和程序可以征收集体所有的土地和单位、个人的房屋及其他不动产。
 Article 42 In order to meet the demands of public interests, it is allowed to requisition lands owned collectively, premises owned by entities and individuals or other realties according to the statutory power limit and procedures.
 征收集体所有的土地，应当依法足额支付土地补偿费、安置补助费、地上附着物和青苗的补偿费等费用，安排被征地农民的社会保障费用，保障被征地农民的生活，维护被征地农民的合法权益。
 When requisitioning land owned collectively, it is required to, in accordance with law and in full amount, pay land compensation fees, placement subsidies, compensations for the above-ground fixtures of the lands and seedlings and other fees, arrange for social security fees for the farmers with land requisitioned, guarantee their livelihood and protect their lawful rights and interests.
 征收单位、个人的房屋及其他不动产，应当依法给予拆迁补偿，维护被征收人的合法权益；征收个人住宅的，还应当保障被征收人的居住条件。
 When requisitioning the premises owned by entities and individuals or other realties, it is required to compensate for demolishment and re[] in accordance with law and protect the lawful rights and interests of the owners of the requisitioned realties; when requisitioning the individuals’ residential houses, it is required to guarantee the housing conditions of the owners of the requisitioned houses.
 任何单位和个人不得贪污、挪用、私分、截留、拖欠征收补偿费等费用。
 The compensation fees for requisition and other fees may not be embezzled, misappropriated, privately shared, detained or delayed in the payment of by any entity or individual.
 第四十三条 国家对耕地实行特殊保护，严格限制农用地转为建设用地，控制建设用地总量。不得违反法律规定的权限和程序征收集体所有的土地。
 Article 43 Special protections are provided by the state for farm lands, the conversion of farm lands into construction lands is strictly restricted and the aggregate quantity of construction lands is under control. No one may requisition any land owned collectively with violation of the statutory power limit and procedures.
 第四十四条 因抢险、救灾等紧急需要，依照法律规定的权限和程序可以征用单位、个人的不动产或者动产。被征用的不动产或者动产使用后，应当返还被征用人。单位、个人的不动产或者动产被征用或者征用后毁损、灭失的，应当给予补偿。
 Article 44 For meeting needs of emergent dangers or disasters, it is allowed for one to use the realties or chattels owned by entities and individuals according to the statutory power limit and procedures. Such realties or chattels shall, after the emergent use, be returned to the owners. In case any realty or chattel owned by any entity or individual is used or damaged or lost after being used, corresponding compensation shall be made.
 第五章 国家所有权和集体所有权、私人所有权
 Chapter V State Ownership, Collective Ownership and Private Ownership
 第四十五条 法律规定属于国家所有的财产，属于国家所有即全民所有。
 Article 45 As regards the properties that shall be owned by the state as provided for by law, they shall be in the ownership of the state, that is, owned by all the people.
 国有财产由国务院代表国家行使所有权；法律另有规定的，依照其规定。
 The State Council shall exercise the ownership of state-owned properties on behalf of the state; in case there is any otherwise provision in any law, such provision shall prevail.
 第四十六条 矿藏、水流、海域属于国家所有。
 Article 46 Mineral deposits, waters and sea areas shall be in the ownership of the state.
 第四十七条 城市的土地，属于国家所有。法律规定属于国家所有的农村和城市郊区的土地，属于国家所有。
 Article 47 Urban lands shall be in the ownership of the state. As regards lands in the rural areas and suburban areas that shall be owned by the state as prescribed by law, they shall be in the ownership of the state.
 第四十八条 森林、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂等自然资源，属于国家所有，但法律规定属于集体所有的除外。
 Article 48 Such natural resources as forests, mountains, grasslands, waste lands and tidal flats shall be in the ownership of the state, except for those that shall be in the ownership of collective as provided for by law.
 第四十九条 法律规定属于国家所有的野生动植物资源，属于国家所有。
 Article 49 As regards the wildlife resources that shall be owned by the state as provisioned by law, they shall be in the ownership of the state.
 第五十条 无线电频谱资源属于国家所有。
 Article 50 Radio frequency spectrum resources shall be in the ownership of the state.
 第五十一条 法律规定属于国家所有的文物，属于国家所有。
 Article 51 As regards the cultural relics that shall be owned by the state as provisioned by law, they shall be in the ownership of the state.
 第五十二条 国防资产属于国家所有。
 Article 52 National defense assets shall be in the ownership of the state.
 铁路、公路、电力设施、电信设施和油气管道等基础设施，依照法律规定为国家所有的，属于国家所有。
 As regards such infrastructures as railways, highways, electric power facilities, telecommunication facilities, and petrol and gas pipelines that shall be owned by the state as provisioned by law, they shall be in the ownership of the state.
 第五十三条 国家机关对其直接支配的不动产和动产，享有占有、使用以及依照法律和国务院的有关规定处分的权利。
 Article 53 State organs have the power, in accordance with the laws and the relevant provisions of the State Council, to possess, utilize and dispose of any realty or chattel directly controlled by them.
 第五十四条 国家举办的事业单位对其直接支配的不动产和动产，享有占有、使用以及依照法律和国务院的有关规定收益、处分的权利。
 Article 54 The public institutions held by the state have the power to possess, utilize, as well as, according to the laws and the relevant provisions of the State Council, seek profits from and dispose of any realty or chattel directly controlled by them.
 第五十五条 国家出资的企业，由国务院、地方人民政府依照法律、行政法规规定分别代表国家履行出资人职责，享有出资人权益。
 Article 55 As regards the enterprises set up with the funds invested in by the state, the State Council and the local people’s governments shall perform and enjoy the contributor’s duties as well as rights and interests on behalf of the state in accordance with the relevant laws and administrative regulations.
 第五十六条 国家所有的财产受法律保护，禁止任何单位和个人侵占、哄抢、私分、截留、破坏。
 Article 56 The state-owned properties shall be protected by law, and no entity or individual may encroach, plunder, privately distribute, hold back or damage them.
 第五十七条 履行国有财产管理、监督职责的机构及其工作人员，应当依法加强对国有财产的管理、监督，促进国有财产保值增值，防止国有财产损失；滥用职权，玩忽职守，造成国有财产损失的，应当依法承担法律责任。
 Article 57 The institutions and working personnel thereof in charge of performing the duties of managing and supervising state-owned assets shall, according to law, strengthen the management and supervision of state-owned assets so as to promote the value maintenance and appreciation prevent the losses thereof; in case any entity or individual causes any loss of state-owned assets by misusing authority or neglecting duty, it/he shall assume legal liabilities in accordance with law.
 违反国有财产管理规定，在企业改制、合并分立、关联交易等过程中，低价转让、合谋私分、擅自担保或者以其他方式造成国有财产损失的，应当依法承担法律责任。
 In case any entity or individual, in the process of enterprise restructuring, merger, division or affiliated transactions, causes losses of state-owned assets by way of transferring at a low price, conspiring to distribute them secretly, providing guarantee with them without authorization or any other way with violation of the provisions on the management of state-owned assets, it/he shall assume legal liabilities in accordance with law.
 第五十八条 集体所有的不动产和动产包括：
 Article 58 The collectively-owned realties and chattels shall contain:
 （一） 法律规定属于集体所有的土地和森林、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂；
 (1) Lands, forests, mountains, grasslands, wastelands and tidal flats that shall be in the ownership of collective as provided for by law;
 （二） 集体所有的建筑物、生产设施、农田水利设施；
 (2) Buildings, production facilities, farmland, and water conservancy facilities that are in the ownership of collective;
 （三） 集体所有的教育、科学、文化、卫生、体育等设施；
 (3) Facilities for education, science, culture, sanitation and sports, etc that are in the ownership of collective;
 （四） 集体所有的其他不动产和动产。
 (4) Other realties and chattels that are in the ownership of collective.
 第五十九条 农民集体所有的不动产和动产，属于本集体成员集体所有。
 Article 59 The realties and chattels that are in the ownership of a farmers’ collective shall be collectively owned by all the members of this collective.
 下列事项应当依照法定程序经本集体成员决定：
 The following issues shall be determined by the members of the collective according to the statutory procedures:
 （一） 土地承包方案以及将土地发包给本集体以外的单位或者个人承包；
 (1) land contracting plan and whether to contract out a land to an entity or individual not included in the collective;
 （二） 个别土地承包经营权人之间承包地的调整；
 (2) adjustment of the contracted lands among the right holders of the contracted management of land;
 （三） 土地补偿费等费用的使用、分配办法；
 (3) methods for using and distributing such fees as land compensation fees;
 （四） 集体出资的企业的所有权变动等事项；
 (4) the alteration of ownership or any other related issue of an enterprise set up with the funds invested in by the collective; and
 （五） 法律规定的其他事项。
 (5) other issues provided for by any law.
 第六十条 对于集体所有的土地和森林、山岭、草原、荒地、滩涂等，依照下列规定行使所有权：
 Article 60 As regards any collectively-owned land, forest, mountain, grassland, wasteland or tidal flat, the ownership thereof shall be exercised according to the provisions as follows:
 （一） 属于村农民集体所有的，由村集体经济组织或者村民委员会代表集体行使所有权；
 (1) In case it is owned by a farmers’ collective of a village, a collective economic organization or the villagers’ committee of the village shall exercise the ownership on behalf of the collective;
 （二） 分别属于村内两个以上农民集体所有的，由村内各该集体经济组织或者村民小组代表集体行使所有权；
 (2) In case it is owned by two farmers’ collectives or more, all the collective economic organizations or villagers’ groups of the village shall exercise the ownership on behalf of the collective; and
 （三） 属于乡镇农民集体所有的，由乡镇集体经济组织代表集体行使所有权。
 (3) In case it is owned by a farmers’ collective of a town, a collective economic organization of the town shall exercise the ownership on behalf of the collective.
 第六十一条 城镇集体所有的不动产和动产，依照法律、行政法规的规定由本集体享有占有、使用、收益和处分的权利。
 Article 61 As regards any realty or chattel owned by an urban collective, this urban collective has the rights to possess, use, seek profits from and dispose of it according to the related laws and administrative regulations.
 第六十二条 集体经济组织或者村民委员会、村民小组应当依照法律、行政法规以及章程、村规民约向本集体成员公布集体财产的状况。
 Article 62 The collective economic organization, villager’s committee or villagers’ group shall, in accordance with the relevant laws, administrative regulations, articles of association and village regulations and villagers’ pledges, publicize the situation of the properties owned by a collective to the members of the collective.
 第六十三条 集体所有的财产受法律保护，禁止任何单位和个人侵占、哄抢、私分、破坏。
 Article 63 Collectively-owned properties shall be protected by law, and any entity or individual may not encroach, plunder, privately distribute, hold back or destroy them.
 集体经济组织、村民委员会或者其负责人作出的决定侵害集体成员合法权益的，受侵害的集体成员可以请求人民法院予以撤销。
 Where the legitimate rights and interests of any member of the collective are infringed upon by any decision made by a collective economic organization, villagers’ committee or the principle thereof, such member may require the people’s court to cancel the decision.
 第六十四条 私人对其合法的收入、房屋、生活用品、生产工具、原材料等不动产和动产享有所有权。
 Article 64 An individual has the right to own his legal income, premise, household goods, production instruments, raw materials as well as other realties and chattels.
 第六十五条 私人合法的储蓄、投资及其收益受法律保护。
 Article 65 The legal savings, investments and the proceeds therefrom of an individual shall be protected by law.
 国家依照法律规定保护私人的继承权及其他合法权益。
 An individual’s right of inheritance as well as other legal rights and interests shall be protected by the state in accordance with law.
 第六十六条 私人的合法财产受法律保护，禁止任何单位和个人侵占、哄抢、破坏。
 Article 66 An individual’s legal properties shall be protected by law, any entity or individual may not encroach, plunder or destroy them.
 第六十七条 国家、集体和私人依法可以出资设立有限责任公司、股份有限公司或者其他企业。国家、集体和私人所有的不动产或者动产，投到企业的，由出资人按照约定或者出资比例享有资产收益、重大决策以及选择经营管理者等权利并履行义务。
 Article 67 The state, any collective or individual may invest to set up a limited liability company, a company limited by shares or any other form of enterprise. In case the state, a collective or an individual invest the realties or chattels it owns in an enterprise, the contributor shall, in accordance with the agreement or on the basis of his proportion of investment, enjoy rights such as obtaining asset returns, making important decisions and selecting operators and managers and perform their duties.
 第六十八条 企业法人对其不动产和动产依照法律、行政法规以及章程享有占有、使用、收益和处分的权利。
 Article 68 In accordance with the laws, administrative regulations and its articles of association, An enterprise legal person is entitled to possess, utilize, seek profits from and dispose of any realty or chattel it owns.
 企业法人以外的法人，对其不动产和动产的权利，适用有关法律、行政法规以及章程的规定。
 As regards the rights over the realties and chattels owned by a legal person other than an enterprise legal person, the provisions of the related laws, administrative regulations and its articles of associations shall apply.
 第六十九条 社会团体依法所有的不动产和动产，受法律保护。
 Article 69 The realties and chattels owned by social organizations in accordance with law shall be protected by law.
 第六章 业主的建筑物区分所有权
 Chapter VI Owners’ Partitioned Ownership of Building Areas
 第七十条 业主对建筑物内的住宅、经营性用房等专有部分享有所有权，对专有部分以外的共有部分享有共有和共同管理的权利。
 Article 70 As regards such exclusive parts within the buildings as the residential houses or the houses used for business purposes, an owner shall enjoy the ownership thereof, while as regards the common parts other than the exclusive parts, the owner shall have common ownership and the common management right thereof.
 第七十一条 业主对其建筑物专有部分享有占有、使用、收益和处分的权利。业主行使权利不得危及建筑物的安全，不得损害其他业主的合法权益。
 Article 71 An owner is entitled to possess utilize, seek profits from and dispose of the exclusive parts of the building. Any owner may not endanger the safety of the building or infringe upon the lawful rights and interests of any other owner when exercising his or its rights.
 第七十二条 业主对建筑物专有部分以外的共有部分，享有权利，承担义务；不得以放弃权利不履行义务。
 Article 72 An owner enjoys the rights and assumes the obligations over the common parts other than the exclusive parts of the building, and may not reject performing the obligations under the pretext of abandoning rights.
 业主转让建筑物内的住宅、经营性用房，其对共有部分享有的共有和共同管理的权利一并转让。
 In case an owner alienates his residential house or the house used for business purposes within the building, the common ownership and the common management right enjoyed by him/her over the common parts shall be alienated at the same time.
 第七十三条 建筑区划内的道路，属于业主共有，但属于城镇公共道路的除外。建筑区划内的绿地，属于业主共有，但属于城镇公共绿地或者明示属于个人的除外。建筑区划内的其他公共场所、公用设施和物业服务用房，属于业主共有。
 Article 73 The roads within the building zone, except for the public roads of cities and towns, shall be commonly owned by the owners. The green lands within the building area, except for the public green lands of cities and towns or those which are definitely ascribed to individuals, shall be commonly owned by all the owners. The other public places, common facilities and houses used for realty services within the building zone shall be commonly owned by all the owners.
 第七十四条 建筑区划内，规划用于停放汽车的车位、车库应当首先满足业主的需要。
 Article 74 The parking places and garages within the building area planned for parking cars shall be used to meet the needs of the owners above all else.
 建筑区划内，规划用于停放汽车的车位、车库的归属，由当事人通过出售、附赠或者出租等方式约定。
 The ownership of the parking places and garages shall be agreed upon by the related parties in the manners of selling, complementary using or leasing, etc.
 占用业主共有的道路或者其他场地用于停放汽车的车位，属于业主共有。
 The parking places, which occupy the roads or other fields commonly owned by all owners, shall be in the common ownership of all the owners.
 第七十五条 业主可以设立业主大会，选举业主委员会。
 Article 75 The owners may set up an owners’ assembly and vote for an owners’ committee.
 地方人民政府有关部门应当对设立业主大会和选举业主委员会给予指导和协助。
 For the establishment of the owners’ assembly and the vote of the owners’ committee, the related departments under the local people’s governments shall provide guidance and assistance.
 第七十六条 下列事项由业主共同决定：
 Article 76 The following matters shall be commonly determined by all owners:
 （一） 制定和修改业主大会议事规则；
 (1) to formulate and revise the rules of procedure for the owners’ assembly;
 （二） 制定和修改建筑物及其附属设施的管理规约；
 (2) to formulate and revise the stipulations on managing the building and affiliated facilities thereof;
 （三） 选举业主委员会或者更换业主委员会成员；
 (3) to vote for the owners’ committee or alter the members thereof t;
 （四） 选聘和解聘物业服务企业或者其他管理人；
 (4) to hire or fire the realty service enterprise or any other manager;
 （五） 筹集和使用建筑物及其附属设施的维修资金；
 (5) to raise or use the funds for maintaining the building and affiliated facilities thereof;
 （六） 改建、重建建筑物及其附属设施；
 (6) to rebuild the building or any of its affiliated facilities;
 （七） 有关共有和共同管理权利的其他重大事项。
 (7) other important matters on the common ownership and the common management right.
 决定前款第五项和第六项规定的事项，应当经专有部分占建筑物总面积三分之二以上的业主且占总人数三分之二以上的业主同意。决定前款其他事项，应当经专有部分占建筑物总面积过半数的业主且占总人数过半数的业主同意。
 For making a decision on matters prescribed in Item (5) or (6) of the preceding paragraph, the consent of the 2/3 or more of the total owners with exclusive parts accounting for 2/3 or more of the total area of the building shall be obtained. For making a decision on any other issue prescribed in the preceding paragraph, the consent of half of the total owners with exclusive parts accounting for half of the total area of the building shall be obtained.
 第七十七条 业主不得违反法律、法规以及管理规约，将住宅改变为经营性用房。业主将住宅改变为经营性用房的，除遵守法律、法规以及管理规约外，应当经有利害关系的业主同意。
 Article 77 Any owner may not alter a residential house into a house used for business purposes with violation of any law, regulation or management stipulation. An owner shall, when changing a residential house into a house used for business purposes, obtain the consent of the interested owners, in addition to complying with the laws, regulations and management stipulations.
 第七十八条 业主大会或者业主委员会的决定，对业主具有约束力。
 Article 78 Decisions made by the owners’ assembly or the owners’ committee are binding to each owner.
 业主大会或者业主委员会作出的决定侵害业主合法权益的，受侵害的业主可以请求人民法院予以撤销。
 In case the legitimate rights and interests of any owner has been injured by any decision made by the owners’ assembly or the owners’ committee, the injured owner may require the people’s court to cancel the decision.
 第七十九条 建筑物及其附属设施的维修资金，属于业主共有。经业主共同决定，可以用于电梯、水箱等共有部分的维修。维修资金的筹集、使用情况应当公布。
 Article 79 The funds for maintaining a building and affiliated facilities thereof shall be commonly owned by the owners of the building. The funds may, upon the codetermination of the owners, be used for maintaining such common parts as elevators and water tanks. The circumstance about the raise and use of the maintenance funds shall be released to the owners.
 第八十条 建筑物及其附属设施的费用分摊、收益分配等事项，有约定的，按照约定；没有约定或者约定不明确的，按照业主专有部分占建筑物总面积的比例确定。
 Article 80 As regards such matters as the expenses al[] and the proceeds distribution of a building or any of its affiliated facilities, in case there exists any stipulation for these, such stipulation shall apply; in the case of no stipulation or unclear stipulation, these matters shall be determined in accordance with the proportion of each owner’s exclusive parts to the total area of the building.
 第八十一条 业主可以自行管理建筑物及其附属设施，也可以委托物业服务企业或者其他管理人管理。
 Article 81 The owners of a building may manage the building and affiliated facilities thereof by themselves or they may entrust a realty service enterprise or any other manager to conduct the management.
 对建设单位聘请的物业服务企业或者其他管理人，业主有权依法更换。
 As regards the realty service enterprise or any other manager hired by the construction entity, the owners are entitled to alter it in accordance with law.
 第八十二条 物业服务企业或者其他管理人根据业主的委托管理建筑区划内的建筑物及其附属设施，并接受业主的监督。
 Article 82 The realty service enterprise or any other manager shall, upon the strength of the owners’ entrustment, manage the building and affiliated facilities thereof within the building area and accept the owners’ supervision.
 第八十三条 业主应当遵守法律、法规以及管理规约。
 Article 83 The owners shall comply with the laws, regulations and management stipulations.
 业主大会和业主委员会，对任意弃置垃圾、排放污染物或者噪声、违反规定饲养动物、违章搭建、侵占通道、拒付物业费等损害他人合法权益的行为，有权依照法律、法规以及管理规约，要求行为人停止侵害、消除危险、排除妨害、赔偿损失。业主对侵害自己合法权益的行为，可以依法向人民法院提起诉讼。
 As regards any act infringing upon the lawful rights and interests of other persons, such as discarding wastes at will, discharging atmospheric pollutants and noise, breeding animals with violation of the related regulations, illegally building shelters, occupying passages or rejecting paying realty management fees, etc, the owners’ assembly and the owners’ committee have the right, in accordance with the relevant laws, regulations and management stipulations, to request the actor to stop the infringing act, terminate the danger, remove the impediments and make compensation for the losses. Where any owner’s legitimate rights and interests are infringed upon, he/she may lodge an action to the people’s court in accordance with law.
 第七章 相邻关系
 Chapter VII Neighboring Relationship
 第八十四条 不动产的相邻权利人应当按照有利生产、方便生活、团结互助、公平合理的原则，正确处理相邻关系。
 Article 84 A neighboring right holder of a realty shall, in accordance with the principles of facilitating production and livelihood, solidarity and mutual aid, as well as fairness and equity, handle the neighboring relationship in a correct manner.
 第八十五条 法律、法规对处理相邻关系有规定的，依照其规定；法律、法规没有规定的，可以按照当地习惯。
 Article 85 In case there exists any legal provision on the disposal of neighboring relationship, such provision shall apply; in the case of no such provision,, the neighboring relationship shall be disposed of in light of the local customs.
 第八十六条 不动产权利人应当为相邻权利人用水、排水提供必要的便利。
 Article 86 The holder of a realty shall provide necessary convenience for the neighboring right holders in terms of the use of water and drainage.
 对自然流水的利用，应当在不动产的相邻权利人之间合理分配。对自然流水的排放，应当尊重自然流向。
 As regards the utilization of natural running water, the neighboring right holders of a realty shall rationally distribute it. The natural current direction shall be respected when draining natural running water.
 第八十七条 不动产权利人对相邻权利人因通行等必须利用其土地的，应当提供必要的便利。
 Article 87 Necessary conveniences shall be provided by the right holder of a realty where a neighboring right holder has to use his land by virtue of passage or for any other reason.
 第八十八条 不动产权利人因建造、修缮建筑物以及铺设电线、电缆、水管、暖气和燃气管线等必须利用相邻土地、建筑物的，该土地、建筑物的权利人应当提供必要的便利。
 Article 88 In case the right holder of a realty has to use a neighboring land or building by virtue of the construction or repairing of a building, or the laying of wires, cables, water pipes, heating pipelines or fuel gas pipelines, etc, necessary convenience shall be provided by the right holder of such land or building.
 第八十九条 建造建筑物，不得违反国家有关工程建设标准，妨碍相邻建筑物的通风、采光和日照。
 Article 89 When constructing a building, no entity or individual may block the ventilation, lighting or sunshine of any neighboring building with violation of the relevant engineering construction standards of the state.
 第九十条 不动产权利人不得违反国家规定弃置固体废物，排放大气污染物、水污染物、噪声、光、电磁波辐射等有害物质。
 Article 90 No holder of realty may discard solid wastes or discharge such harmful substances as atmospheric pollutants, water pollutants, noise, light and magnetic radiation with violation of the related provisions of the state.
 第九十一条 不动产权利人挖掘土地、建造建筑物、铺设管线以及安装设备等，不得危及相邻不动产的安全。
 Article 91 The right holder of the realty may not, when excavating a land, constructing a building, laying a pipeline or installing an equipment, endanger the safety of any neighboring realty.
 第九十二条 不动产权利人因用水、排水、通行、铺设管线等利用相邻不动产的，应当尽量避免对相邻的不动产权利人造成损害；造成损害的，应当给予赔偿。
 Article 92 Where the right holder of a realty has to use a neighboring realty by virtue of using water, drainage, passage or laying pipelines, etc, he shall make more efforts to avoid causing any damage to the right holder of the neighboring realty; He shall make corresponding compensations in case any damage is caused.
 第八章 共有
 Chapter VIII Common Ownership
 第九十三条 不动产或者动产可以由两个以上单位、个人共有。共有包括按份共有和共同共有。
 Article 93 A realty or chattel may be commonly owned by two or more entities or individuals. Common ownership contains several co-ownership and joint ownership.
 第九十四条 按份共有人对共有的不动产或者动产按照其份额享有所有权。
 Article 94 As regards a commonly owned realty or chattel, a several co-owner shall, on the basis of his proportion, enjoy the ownership of the realty or chattel.
 第九十五条 共同共有人对共有的不动产或者动产共同享有所有权。
 Article 95 As regards a commonly owned realty or chattel, a joint owner shall, on a common basis, enjoy the ownership of the realty or chattel.
 第九十六条 共有人按照约定管理共有的不动产或者动产；没有约定或者约定不明确的，各共有人都有管理的权利和义务。
 Article 96 The co-owners shall manage the commonly owned realty or chattel in accordance with stipulation; in the case of no or unclear stipulation,, all co-owners have the right and obligation of management.
 第九十七条 处分共有的不动产或者动产以及对共有的不动产或者动产作重大修缮的，应当经占份额三分之二以上的按份共有人或者全体共同共有人同意，但共有人之间另有约定的除外。
 Article 97 As regards the disposal or heavy repair of a commonly owned realty or chattel, unless it is stipulated otherwise by the co-owners, the consent of the several co-owners holding 2/3 shares or all joint owners shall be obtained.
 第九十八条 对共有物的管理费用以及其他负担，有约定的，按照约定；没有约定或者约定不明确的，按份共有人按照其份额负担，共同共有人共同负担。
 Article 98 As regards the management expenses or any other liabilities of a commonly owned res, in case there exists any stipulation on these, such stipulation shall apply; in the case of no or unclear stipulation, the expenses shall be assumed by the several co-owners in accordance with their respective shares or commonly assumed by all joint owners.
 第九十九条 共有人约定不得分割共有的不动产或者动产，以维持共有关系的，应当按照约定，但共有人有重大理由需要分割的，可以请求分割；没有约定或者约定不明确的，按份共有人可以随时请求分割，共同共有人在共有的基础丧失或者有重大理由需要分割时可以请求分割。因分割对其他共有人造成损害的，应当给予赔偿。
 Article 99 Where the co-owners of a commonly owned realty or chattel has stipulated that it is not allowed to partition the realty or chattel so as to maintain the relationship of common ownership, such stipulation shall apply; but where any co-owner has certain significant reasons for partitioning the realty or chattel, he may request the partition; in the case of no or unclear stipulation, a several co-owner may request the partition at any time, and a joint owner may request the partition where the basis for the common ownership disappears or he has certain significant reasons. In case any damage is caused by the partition causes to any other person, the corresponding compensation shall be made.
 第一百条 共有人可以协商确定分割方式。达不成协议，共有的不动产或者动产可以分割并且不会因分割减损价值的，应当对实物予以分割；难以分割或者因分割会减损价值的，应当对折价或者拍卖、变卖取得的价款予以分割。
 Article 100 The co-owners of a commonly owned realty or chattel may decide on through negotiation the way of partition. The real object shall be partitioned in case no agreement is achieved and the realty or chattel may be partitioned without impacting its value,;, the partition shall be executed by distributing the purchase price obtained from converting its value into money, the auction or selling off the realty or chattel in case it is difficult to partition it or its value would be affected because of the partition.
 共有人分割所得的不动产或者动产有瑕疵的，其他共有人应当分担损失。
 Where the realty or chattel, which is obtained from the partition of a commonly owned realty or chattel by a co-owner, has any flaw, the other co-owners shall assume the losses together.
 第一百零一条 按份共有人可以转让其享有的共有的不动产或者动产份额。其他共有人在同等条件下享有优先购买的权利。
 Article 101 A several co-owner may alienate his share of the commonly owned realty or chattel. And the other several co-owners have the preemptive right for purchase on an equal footing.
 第一百零二条 因共有的不动产或者动产产生的债权债务，在对外关系上，共有人享有连带债权、承担连带债务，但法律另有规定或者第三人知道共有人不具有连带债权债务关系的除外；在共有人内部关系上，除共有人另有约定外，按份共有人按照份额享有债权、承担债务，共同共有人共同享有债权、承担债务。偿还债务超过自己应当承担份额的按份共有人，有权向其他共有人追偿。
 Article 102 As regards an obligee’s right or a debt generated from a commonly owned realty or chattel, unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law or the third party is aware of the fact that the co-owner does not have the relationship of joint and several creditor’s right or debt, a co-owner shall enjoy joint and several creditor’s right or undertake joint and several debt in terms of external relationship. In terms of the internal relationship among the co-owners, unless it is otherwise stipulated by the co-owners, a co-owner shall enjoy the creditor’s right or undertake the debt on the basis of his own share, while joint owners shall enjoy the creditor’s right or undertake the debt on a common basis. In case any several co-owner overpays his share of the debt, he/she has the right to recover the overpaid amount from the other co-owners.
 第一百零三条 共有人对共有的不动产或者动产没有约定为按份共有或者共同共有，或者约定不明确的，除共有人具有家庭关系等外，视为按份共有。
 Article 103 In case the co-owners does not stipulate whether the commonly owned realty or chattel is under several co-ownership or joint ownership, or if the stipulation is unclear, unless there is a family relationship among the co-owners, it shall be considered as a several co-ownership.
 第一百零四条 按份共有人对共有的不动产或者动产享有的份额，没有约定或者约定不明确的，按照出资额确定；不能确定出资额的，视为等额享有。
 Article 104 A several co-owner’s share of a commonly owned realty or chattel shall be decided on according to his contribution amount in the case of no or unclear stipulation; each several co-owner shall enjoy an equal share where it is impossible to determine the contribution amount.
 第一百零五条 两个以上单位、个人共同享有用益物权、担保物权的，参照本章规定。
 Article 105 In case two or more entities or individuals commonly own the usufractuary right or real right for security of a realty or chattel, the provisions in this Chapter shall be applicable by reference.
 第九章 所有权取得的特别规定
 Chapter IX Special Provisions on Acquiring Ownership
 第一百零六条 无处分权人将不动产或者动产转让给受让人的，所有权人有权追回；除法律另有规定外，符合下列情形的，受让人取得该不动产或者动产的所有权：
 Article 106 In case a person unauthorized to dispose a realty or chattel alienates the realty or chattel to an assignee, the owner is entitled to recover the realty or chattel. The assignee shall obtain the ownership of the realty or chattel if meeting all of the following conditions, unless it is otherwise prescribed by law:
 （一） 受让人受让该不动产或者动产时是善意的；
 (1) to accept the realty or chattel in good faith;
 （二） 以合理的价格转让；
 (2) to purchase the realty or chattel at a reasonable price; and
 （三） 转让的不动产或者动产依照法律规定应当登记的已经登记，不需要登记的已经交付给受让人。
 (3) in case registration is required by law, the alienated realty or chattel shall have been registered, while in case registration is not required, the delivery thereof shall have been accomplished.
 受让人依照前款规定取得不动产或者动产的所有权的，原所有权人有权向无处分权人请求赔偿损失。
 In case, according to the preceding paragraph, an assignee obtains the ownership of a realty or chattel, the original owner may require the person unauthorized to dispose of the realty or chattel to compensate for his losses.
 当事人善意取得其他物权的，参照前两款规定。
 In case a related party obtains any other form of real right in good faith, the preceding two paragraphs shall apply by reference.
 第一百零七条 所有权人或者其他权利人有权追回遗失物。该遗失物通过转让被他人占有的，权利人有权向无处分权人请求损害赔偿，或者自知道或者应当知道受让人之日起二年内向受让人请求返还原物，但受让人通过拍卖或者向具有经营资格的经营者购得该遗失物的，权利人请求返还原物时应当支付受让人所付的费用。权利人向受让人支付所付费用后，有权向无处分权人追偿。
 Article 107 The owner or any other holder has the right to recover a lost property. In case the lost property is possessed by any other person through alienation, the owner has the right to require the person unauthorized to dispose of the property to compensate for damages, or, ask the assignee to return the original property within 2 years as of the date when he knows who is the assignee. But in case the assignee purchases the lost property through auction or from a qualified operator, the holder shall, when requiring the returning of the original property, pay the assignee the amount that the assignee has paid for purchasing the property. After paying the amount, the owner has the right to recover the amount from the person unauthorized to dispose of the property.
 第一百零八条 善意受让人取得动产后，该动产上的原有权利消灭，但善意受让人在受让时知道或者应当知道该权利的除外。
 Article 108 After a bona fide assignee obtains a realty, the original rights on the realty shall be terminated, unless the bona fide assignee has already been or ought to be aware of the right when the transfer is made.
 第一百零九条 拾得遗失物，应当返还权利人。拾得人应当及时通知权利人领取，或者送交公安等有关部门。
 Article 109 A lost-and-found object shall be returned to the right holder. The person finding such object shall inform the right holder to claim the object or hand it over to such related departments as the public security department in time.
 第一百一十条 有关部门收到遗失物，知道权利人的，应当及时通知其领取；不知道的，应当及时发布招领公告。
 Article 110 After receiving a lost-and-found object, the related department shall notify the right holder to claim the object in a timely manner in case it knows who is the right holder; it shall publish an announcement on the claiming of the lost property in a timely manner in case it does not know.
 第一百一十一条 拾得人在遗失物送交有关部门前，有关部门在遗失物被领取前，应当妥善保管遗失物。因故意或者重大过失致使遗失物毁损、灭失的，应当承担民事责任。
 Article 111 The person who finds the object shall properly keep it before it is handed over to the related department, and the related department also shall do so before it is claimed by the right holder. Where the object is injured or lost deliberately or for gross negligence, the personnel concerned shall assume the civil liabilities.
 第一百一十二条 权利人领取遗失物时，应当向拾得人或者有关部门支付保管遗失物等支出的必要费用。
 Article 112 The right holder of the object, when obtaining a lost-and-found object, shall pay the person who finds the object or the related department such necessary expenses as the cost for safekeeping the object.
 权利人悬赏寻找遗失物的，领取遗失物时应当按照承诺履行义务。
 Where a right holder promises to offering a reward for finding the object, he shall, when claiming the object, perform the obligation of granting the reward.
 拾得人侵占遗失物的，无权请求保管遗失物等支出的费用，也无权请求权利人按照承诺履行义务。
 Where the person who finds the object misappropriates the lost object, he/she shall be deprived of the right to ask for paying the expenses he/she has paid for safekeeping the object or require the holder to perform the obligation as promised.
 第一百一十三条 遗失物自发布招领公告之日起六个月内无人认领的，归国家所有。
 Article 113 In case a lost-and-found object fails to be claimed within 6 months as of the date when the claiming announcement o is published, it shall be owned by the state.
 第一百一十四条 拾得漂流物、发现埋藏物或者隐藏物的，参照拾得遗失物的有关规定。文物保护法等法律另有规定的，依照其规定。
 Article 114 As regards the finding of a drifter or the discovery of an object buried underground or a hidden property, the relevant provisions on the finding of a lost-and-found property shall apply by analogy. Where there is any other provision in such laws as the law concerning the protection of cultural relics, such provisions shall prevail.
 第一百一十五条 主物转让的，从物随主物转让，但当事人另有约定的除外。
第三编 用益物权 Part III Usufructuary Right
第十章 一般规定 Chapter X General Rules
第一百一十七条 用益物权人对他人所有的不动产或者动产，依法享有占有、使用和收益的权利。
Article 117 As regards the realty or chattel owned by someone else, a usufructuary right holder is entitled to possess, use and seek proceeds from it in accordance with law.
第一百一十八条 国家所有或者国家所有由集体使用以及法律规定属于集体所有的自然资源，单位、个人依法可以占有、使用和收益。 Article 118 As regards the natural resources that are owned by the state or that are owned by the state but used by the collective as well as those that are owned by the collective as prescribed by law, an entity or individual may possess, use and seek proceeds from them.
第一百一十九条 国家实行自然资源有偿使用制度，但法律另有规定的除外。 Article 119 Unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law, the state practices the system of paid use of natural resources.
第一百二十条 用益物权人行使权利，应当遵守法律有关保护和合理开发利用资源的规定。所有权人不得干涉用益物权人行使权利。 Article 120 When exercising right, a usufructuary right holder shall comply with the provisions on protecting, reasonably exploring and utilizing resources as provided for in the laws. When the usufructuary right holder exercises rights, the owner may not intervene in.
第一百二十一条 因不动产或者动产被征收、征用致使用益物权消灭或者影响用益物权行使的，用益物权人有权依照本法第四十二条、第四十四条的规定获得相应补偿。 Article 121 Where the usufructuary right is terminated or its exercise is affected for reasons of expropriation or requisition, the usufructuary right holder has the right to obtain corresponding compensations in accordance with Articles 42 and 44 of the present Law.
第一百二十二条 依法取得的海域使用权受法律保护。 Article 122 The lawfully obtained right to use sea areas shall be under the protection of law.
第一百二十三条 依法取得的探矿权、采矿权、取水权和使用水域、滩涂从事养殖、捕捞的权利受法律保护。 Article 123 The mineral prospecting right, the mining right, the water intake right and the right to use water areas or tidal flats for breeding or fishery shall be under the protection of law.
第十一章 土地承包经营权 Chapter XI Right to the Contracted Management of Land
第一百二十四条 农村集体经济组织实行家庭承包经营为基础、统分结合的双层经营体制。 Article 124 Such a dual operation system, under which centralized operation and decentralized operation are combined on the basis of household contracted management, shall be practiced by any rural economic organization.
农民集体所有和国家所有由农民集体使用的耕地、林地、草地以及其他用于农业的土地，依法实行土地承包经营制度。 As regards the cultivated land, wood land, grassland, and other land for agricultural uses that are owned by farmers’ collectives as well as those that are owned by the state and used by farmers’ collectives, the system of land contracted management shall be adopted.
第一百二十五条 土地承包经营权人依法对其承包经营的耕地、林地、草地等享有占有、使用和收益的权利，有权从事种植业、林业、畜牧业等农业生产。 Article 125 The holder of the right to the contracted management of land has the right to possess, utilize and seek proceeds from the cultivated land, wood land and grassland, etc. under the contracted management thereof, and is entitled to such agricultural production activities as the planting, forestry, stockbreeding, etc.
第一百二十六条 耕地的承包期为三十年。草地的承包期为三十年至五十年。林地的承包期为三十年至七十年；特殊林木的林地承包期，经国务院林业行政主管部门批准可以延长。 Article 126 The contractual term of cultivated land shall be 30 years. The contractual term of grassland shall be 30 up to 50 years. The contractual term of wood land shall be 30 up to 70 years. The contractual term of special forest land may, upon approval of the forestry administrative department under the State Council, be extended.
前款规定的承包期届满，由土地承包经营权人按照国家有关规定继续承包。 After the contractual term as referred to in the preceding paragraph expires, the holder of the right to the contracted management of land may, according to the relevant provisions of the state, contract continuously.
第一百二十七条 土地承包经营权自土地承包经营权合同生效时设立。 Article 127 The right to the contracted management of land shall be established since the contract thereon goes into effect.
县级以上地方人民政府应当向土地承包经营权人发放土地承包经营权证、林权证、草原使用权证，并登记造册，确认土地承包经营权。 The local people’s government at the country level or above shall issue a certificate of the right to the contracted management of land, a forestry right certificate or a grassland-use right certificate to the holder, register it in the brochure so as to confirm such rights.
第一百二十八条 土地承包经营权人依照农村土地承包法的规定，有权将土地承包经营权采取转包、互换、转让等方式流转。流转的期限不得超过承包期的剩余期限。未经依法批准，不得将承包地用于非农建设。 Article 128 The holder of the right to the contracted management of land has the right, in accordance with the provisions in the law on the contracting of rural land, to circulate his/her such right. The circulated term may not be more than the remnant term of the original contract. Any contracted land may not be used for non-agricultural constructions without approval.
第一百二十九条 土地承包经营权人将土地承包经营权互换、转让，当事人要求登记的，应当向县级以上地方人民政府申请土地承包经营权变更登记；未经登记，不得对抗善意第三人。 Article 129 In case the right to the contracted management of land is circulated by means of exchange or transfer, where the parties concerned require for the registration of such circulation, an application for the alteration registration thereof shall be filed to the local people’s government at the county level or above. Without such registration, neither party may challenge any third party with good faith.
第一百三十条 承包期内发包人不得调整承包地。 Article 130 The contract-letting party may not readjust the contracted land within the duration of a contract.
因自然灾害严重毁损承包地等特殊情形，需要适当调整承包的耕地和草地的，应当依照农村土地承包法等法律规定办理。 In case it is necessary to readjust the cultivated land or grassland as contracted by virtue of such especial events as natural calamities that have materially injured the contracted land, a readjustment may, in accordance with the legal provisions in the law on the contracting of rural land and other related laws, be carried out.
第一百三十一条 承包期内发包人不得收回承包地。农村土地承包法等法律另有规定的，依照其规定。 Article 131 The contract-letting party may not take back the contracted land within the term of the contract. In case there exists any otherwise provision in the law on the contracting of rural land or any other law, such provision shall prevail.
第一百三十二条 承包地被征收的，土地承包经营权人有权依照本法第四十二条第二款的规定获得相应补偿。 Article 132 In case a contracted land is expropriated, the holder of the right to the contracted management of such land has the right to obtain corresponding compensations in accordance with Paragraph 2 of Article 42 in the present Law.
第一百三十三条 通过招标、拍卖、公开协商等方式承包荒地等农村土地，依照农村土地承包法等法律和国务院的有关规定，其土地承包经营权可以转让、入股、抵押或者以其他方式流转。 Article 133 As regards the barren land or other rural land that is contracted through bid invitation, auction, or open negotiation, etc, the right to the contracted management thereof may, according to the law on the contracting of rural land and other laws as well the related regulations of the State Council, be circulated by means of alienation, lease, equity contribution, or mortgage, etc.
第一百三十四条 国家所有的农用地实行承包经营的，参照本法的有关规定。 Article 134 In case the contracted management is conducted over any state-owned rural land, the related provisions in the present Law shall apply by analogy.
第十二章 建设用地使用权 Chapter XII Right to Use Construction Land
第一百三十五条 建设用地使用权人依法对国家所有的土地享有占有、使用和收益的权利，有权利用该土地建造建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施。 Article 135 The holder of the right to use construction land has the right to possess, use and seek proceeds from the land owned by the state, and shall be entitled to the construction of buildings, fixtures and their auxiliary facilities by making use of such land.
第一百三十六条 建设用地使用权可以在土地的地表、地上或者地下分别设立。新设立的建设用地使用权，不得损害已设立的用益物权。 Article 136 The right to use construction land may be created separately on the surface of or above or under the land. The newly-established one may not injure the usufructuary right that has already been established.
第一百三十七条 设立建设用地使用权，可以采取出让或者划拨等方式。 Article 137 The right to use construction land may be created through transfer or allotment, etc.
工业、商业、旅游、娱乐和商品住宅等经营性用地以及同一土地有两个以上意向用地者的，应当采取招标、拍卖等公开竞价的方式出让。 As regards the land used for purposes of industry, business, entertainment or commercial dwelling houses, etc. as well as the land with two or more intended users, the alienation thereof shall adopt such means as auction, bid invitation or any other public bidding method.
严格限制以划拨方式设立建设用地使用权。采取划拨方式的，应当遵守法律、行政法规关于土地用途的规定。 It is severely restrained to create the right to use construction land through allotment. For adopting such means, the provisions on land uses in the laws and administrative regulations shall be observed.
第一百三十八条 采取招标、拍卖、协议等出让方式设立建设用地使用权的，当事人应当采取书面形式订立建设用地使用权出让合同。 Article 138 In case the right to use construction land is created through auction, bid invitation, or agreement, etc., the related parties shall conclude a written contract on the transfer of such right.
建设用地使用权出让合同一般包括下列条款： In general, a contract on transfer of the right to use construction land shall contain the items as follows:
（一） 当事人的名称和住所； (1) name and domicile of the parties concerned;
（二） 土地界址、面积等； (2) [] and acreage, etc. of the land;
（三） 建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施占用的空间； (3) space to be covered by buildings, fixtures and affiliated facilities thereof;
（四） 土地用途； (4) use purposes;
（五） 使用期限； (5) use term;
（六） 出让金等费用及其支付方式； (6) payment methods for allotment fees and other fees; and
（七） 解决争议的方法。 (7) dispute settlement method.
第一百三十九条 设立建设用地使用权的，应当向登记机构申请建设用地使用权登记。建设用地使用权自登记时设立。登记机构应当向建设用地使用权人发放建设用地使用权证书。 Article 139 For establishing the right to use construction land, an application for registering such right shall be submitted to the registration organ. The right to use construction land shall be established as of the accomplishment of such registration. A certificate on the right to use construction land shall be issued by the registration organ to the holder of the right to use construction land.
第一百四十条 建设用地使用权人应当合理利用土地，不得改变土地用途；需要改变土地用途的，应当依法经有关行政主管部门批准。 Article 140 The holder of the right to use construction land shall reasonably use the land and may not alter the use purpose. In case the purpose of land use needs to be altered, the approval of the relevant administrative department shall be obtained.
第一百四十一条 建设用地使用权人应当依照法律规定以及合同约定支付出让金等费用。 Article 141 The holder of the right to use construction land shall, according to the legal provisions and the contract, pay transfer fees and other fees.
第一百四十二条 建设用地使用权人建造的建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施的所有权属于建设用地使用权人，但有相反证据证明的除外。 Article 142 As regards the buildings, fixtures and their affiliated facilities built by the holder of the right to use construction land, the holder shall enjoy the ownership thereof, unless it is otherwise proved by any contrary evidence.
第一百四十三条 建设用地使用权人有权将建设用地使用权转让、互换、出资、赠与或者抵押，但法律另有规定的除外。 Article 143 Unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law, the holder of the right to use construction land has the right to alienate, exchange, use as equity contributions, endow or mortgage the right to use construction land.
第一百四十四条 建设用地使用权转让、互换、出资、赠与或者抵押的，当事人应当采取书面形式订立相应的合同。使用期限由当事人约定，但不得超过建设用地使用权的剩余期限。 Article 144 For alienating, exchanging, using as equity contribution, endowing, or mortgaging the right to use construction land, the parties shall enter into a corresponding written contract. The parties concerned may make stipulations on the contractual term, but which may not exceed the remnant term as stipulated in the contract on transfer of the right to use construction land.
第一百四十五条 建设用地使用权转让、互换、出资或者赠与的，应当向登记机构申请变更登记。 Article 145 For alienating, exchanging, using as equity contribution, endowing, or mortgaging the right to use construction land, an application for alteration registration shall be submitted to the registration organ.
第一百四十六条 建设用地使用权转让、互换、出资或者赠与的，附着于该土地上的建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施一并处分。 Article 146 When alienating, exchanging, using as equity contribution, endowing, or mortgaging the right to use construction land, the buildings, fixtures and affiliated facilities thereof on such land shall be disposed of at the same time.
第一百四十七条 建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施转让、互换、出资或者赠与的，该建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施占用范围内的建设用地使用权一并处分。 Article 147 When alienating, exchanging, using as equity contribution, endowing, or mortgaging the buildings, fixtures and affiliated facilities thereof, the right to use construction land covered by the aforesaid buildings, fixtures and affiliated facilities thereof shall be disposed of at the same time.
第一百四十八条 建设用地使用权期间届满前，因公共利益需要提前收回该土地的，应当依照本法第四十二条的规定对该土地上的房屋及其他不动产给予补偿，并退还相应的出让金。 Article 148 Before the term of the right to use construction land expires, where it is necessary to take back the land in advance by virtue of public interests, compensations shall, according to Article 42 of this Law, be given to the houses and other realties on such land, and corresponding land transfer fees shall be returned back.
第一百四十九条 住宅建设用地使用权期间届满的，自动续期。 Article 149 When the term of the right to use construction land for dwelling houses expires, it shall be renewed automatically.
非住宅建设用地使用权期间届满后的续期，依照法律规定办理。该土地上的房屋及其他不动产的归属，有约定的，按照约定；没有约定或者约定不明确的，依照法律、行政法规的规定办理。 As regards the term of the right to use construction land not for dwelling houses, the renewing shall be subject to legal provisions. In case there exists any stipulation on the ownership of houses and other realties on the aforesaid land, such stipulation shall prevail; in the case of no or unclear such stipulation, the ownership shall be determined in accordance with the provisions in the laws and administrative regulations.
第一百五十条 建设用地使用权消灭的，出让人应当及时办理注销登记。登记机构应当收回建设用地使用权证书。 Article 150 Where the right to use construction land is terminated, the transferor shall go through deregistration formalities in time, and the certificate on the right to use construction land shall be taken back by the registration organ.
第一百五十一条 集体所有的土地作为建设用地的，应当依照土地管理法等法律规定办理。 Article 151 Where a piece of collectively-owned land is used as construction land, it shall be handled in accordance with the law on land administration and other related laws.
第十三章 宅基地使用权 Chapter XIII Right to Use House Sites
第一百五十二条 宅基地使用权人依法对集体所有的土地享有占有和使用的权利，有权依法利用该土地建造住宅及其附属设施。 Article 152 The holder of the right to use house sites has the right to possess and use land owned by a collective, and to construct residential houses and affiliated facilities thereof by utilizing such land.
第一百五十三条 宅基地使用权的取得、行使和转让，适用土地管理法等法律和国家有关规定。 Article 153 For acquiring, exercising and alienating the right to use house sites, the law on land administration, other related laws and the related provisions of the state shall apply.
第一百五十四条 宅基地因自然灾害等原因灭失的，宅基地使用权消灭。对失去宅基地的村民，应当重新分配宅基地。 Article 154 The right to use house site shall be terminated where a house site is terminated by virtue of any natural disaster, etc.. A villager losing a house site shall be allotted a house site again.
第一百五十五条 已经登记的宅基地使用权转让或者消灭的，应当及时办理变更登记或者注销登记。 Article 155 The alteration or cancellation registration shall be made in time in the case of the alienation or termination of a registered right to use house sites.
第十四章 地役权 Chapter XIV Easement
第一百五十六条 地役权人有权按照合同约定，利用他人的不动产，以提高自己的不动产的效益。 Article 156 An easement holder shall, according to the contract, be entitled to utilize the realty of someone else so as to enhance the efficiency of his own realty.
前款所称他人的不动产为供役地，自己的不动产为需役地。 The term “realty of someone else” as referred to in the preceding Paragraph shall be the servient tenement, and “one’s own realty” shall be the dominant tenement.
第一百五十七条 设立地役权，当事人应当采取书面形式订立地役权合同。 Article 157 For establishing an easement, the parties concerned shall enter into an written easement contract.
地役权合同一般包括下列条款： In general, an easement contract shall contain the items as follows:
（一） 当事人的姓名或者名称和住所； (1) name and domicile of the related parties;
（二） 供役地和需役地的位置； (2) []s of servient tenement and dominant tenement;
（三） 利用目的和方法； (3) purposes of use and methods;
（四） 利用期限； (4) use term;
（五） 费用及其支付方式； (5) fees and payment method; and
（六） 解决争议的方法。 (6) dispute settlement method.
第一百五十八条 地役权自地役权合同生效时设立。当事人要求登记的，可以向登记机构申请地役权登记；未经登记，不得对抗善意第三人。 Article 158 The easement shall be established since the easement contract comes into effect. Where the related parties considers that the registration thereof is necessary, they may apply to the registration organ for easement registration; otherwise, they may not challenge any third party with good faith.
第一百五十九条 供役地权利人应当按照合同约定，允许地役权人利用其土地，不得妨害地役权人行使权利。 Article 159 The holder of servient tenement shall allow an easement holder to use his/its land in accordance with the contract, and may not hamper the latter from exercising the right.
第一百六十条 地役权人应当按照合同约定的利用目的和方法利用供役地，尽量减少对供役地权利人物权的限制。 Article 160 An easement holder shall, according to the purposes and methods as stipulated in the contract, use the servient tenement, and make efforts to reduce the real right restrictions on the holder of the servient tenement.
第一百六十一条 地役权的期限由当事人约定，但不得超过土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权等用益物权的剩余期限。 Article 161 The easement term shall be stipulated by the related parties, however, it can not be longer than the remnant term of such usufructuary rights as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use construction land, etc.
第一百六十二条 土地所有权人享有地役权或者负担地役权的，设立土地承包经营权、宅基地使用权时，该土地承包经营权人、宅基地使用权人继续享有或者负担已设立的地役权。 Article 162 As regards the easement enjoyed or assumed by the owner of the land, where the right to the contracted management of land or the right to use house site is created, holders of such rights the right to the contracted management of land or rights may continuously enjoy or assume such established easement.
第一百六十三条 土地上已设立土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权、宅基地使用权等权利的，未经用益物权人同意，土地所有权人不得设立地役权。 Article 163 Where any such usufructuary right as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use house site, etc on the land has already been established, the land owner may, without consent of the aforesaid usufructuary right holder, not establish any easement.
第一百六十四条 地役权不得单独转让。土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权等转让的，地役权一并转让，但合同另有约定的除外。 Article 164 The easement may not be transferred alone. Unless it is otherwise stipulated by the contract, where any such usufructuary right as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use construction land, the right to use house site, etc is alienated, the easement shall be alienated at the same time.
第一百六十五条 地役权不得单独抵押。土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权等抵押的，在实现抵押权时，地役权一并转让。 Article 165 The easement may not be mortgaged alone. Where the right to the contracted management of land or the right to use construction land, etc. is mortgaged, when such mortgage is realized, the easement shall be alienated simultaneously.
第一百六十六条 需役地以及需役地上的土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权部分转让时，转让部分涉及地役权的，受让人同时享有地役权。 Article 166 When the dominant tenement as well as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use construction land or the right to use house site thereon are partially alienated, the transferee shall enjoy the easement simultaneously in case the easement is involved in the alienated part,.
第一百六十七条 供役地以及供役地上的土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权部分转让时，转让部分涉及地役权的，地役权对受让人具有约束力。 Article 167 When the servient tenement as well as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use construction land thereon are partially alienated, the easement shall be binding on the alienatee if the easement is involved in alienated part.
第一百六十八条 地役权人有下列情形之一的，供役地权利人有权解除地役权合同，地役权消灭： Article 168 The holder of the servient tenement has the right to rescind the easement contract in case an easement holder is under any of the following circumstances, and the easement shall be terminated:
（一） 违反法律规定或者合同约定，滥用地役权； (1) to go against the legal provisions or the contract, or misuse the easement; or
（二） 有偿利用供役地，约定的付款期间届满后在合理期限内经两次催告未支付费用。 (2) as regards the paid use of servient tenement, upon expiration of the stipulated time limit for payment, fails to pay fees within a reasonable period for two times after being urged to do so.
第一百六十九条 已经登记的地役权变更、转让或者消灭的，应当及时办理变更登记或者注销登记。 Article 169 For changing, alienating or eliminating the registered easement, the alteration or cancellation registration shall be go through in a timely manner.
第三编 用益物权 Part III Usufructuary Right
第十章 一般规定 Chapter X General Rules
第一百一十七条 用益物权人对他人所有的不动产或者动产，依法享有占有、使用和收益的权利。
Article 117 As regards the realty or chattel owned by someone else, a usufructuary right holder is entitled to possess, use and seek proceeds from it in accordance with law.
第一百一十八条 国家所有或者国家所有由集体使用以及法律规定属于集体所有的自然资源，单位、个人依法可以占有、使用和收益。 Article 118 As regards the natural resources that are owned by the state or that are owned by the state but used by the collective as well as those that are owned by the collective as prescribed by law, an entity or individual may possess, use and seek proceeds from them.
第一百一十九条 国家实行自然资源有偿使用制度，但法律另有规定的除外。 Article 119 Unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law, the state practices the system of paid use of natural resources.
第一百二十条 用益物权人行使权利，应当遵守法律有关保护和合理开发利用资源的规定。所有权人不得干涉用益物权人行使权利。 Article 120 When exercising right, a usufructuary right holder shall comply with the provisions on protecting, reasonably exploring and utilizing resources as provided for in the laws. When the usufructuary right holder exercises rights, the owner may not intervene in.
第一百二十一条 因不动产或者动产被征收、征用致使用益物权消灭或者影响用益物权行使的，用益物权人有权依照本法第四十二条、第四十四条的规定获得相应补偿。 Article 121 Where the usufructuary right is terminated or its exercise is affected for reasons of expropriation or requisition, the usufructuary right holder has the right to obtain corresponding compensations in accordance with Articles 42 and 44 of the present Law.
第一百二十二条 依法取得的海域使用权受法律保护。 Article 122 The lawfully obtained right to use sea areas shall be under the protection of law.
第一百二十三条 依法取得的探矿权、采矿权、取水权和使用水域、滩涂从事养殖、捕捞的权利受法律保护。 Article 123 The mineral prospecting right, the mining right, the water intake right and the right to use water areas or tidal flats for breeding or fishery shall be under the protection of law.
第十一章 土地承包经营权 Chapter XI Right to the Contracted Management of Land
第一百二十四条 农村集体经济组织实行家庭承包经营为基础、统分结合的双层经营体制。 Article 124 Such a dual operation system, under which centralized operation and decentralized operation are combined on the basis of household contracted management, shall be practiced by any rural economic organization.
农民集体所有和国家所有由农民集体使用的耕地、林地、草地以及其他用于农业的土地，依法实行土地承包经营制度。 As regards the cultivated land, wood land, grassland, and other land for agricultural uses that are owned by farmers’ collectives as well as those that are owned by the state and used by farmers’ collectives, the system of land contracted management shall be adopted.
第一百二十五条 土地承包经营权人依法对其承包经营的耕地、林地、草地等享有占有、使用和收益的权利，有权从事种植业、林业、畜牧业等农业生产。 Article 125 The holder of the right to the contracted management of land has the right to possess, utilize and seek proceeds from the cultivated land, wood land and grassland, etc. under the contracted management thereof, and is entitled to such agricultural production activities as the planting, forestry, stockbreeding, etc.
第一百二十六条 耕地的承包期为三十年。草地的承包期为三十年至五十年。林地的承包期为三十年至七十年；特殊林木的林地承包期，经国务院林业行政主管部门批准可以延长。 Article 126 The contractual term of cultivated land shall be 30 years. The contractual term of grassland shall be 30 up to 50 years. The contractual term of wood land shall be 30 up to 70 years. The contractual term of special forest land may, upon approval of the forestry administrative department under the State Council, be extended.
前款规定的承包期届满，由土地承包经营权人按照国家有关规定继续承包。 After the contractual term as referred to in the preceding paragraph expires, the holder of the right to the contracted management of land may, according to the relevant provisions of the state, contract continuously.
第一百二十七条 土地承包经营权自土地承包经营权合同生效时设立。 Article 127 The right to the contracted management of land shall be established since the contract thereon goes into effect.
县级以上地方人民政府应当向土地承包经营权人发放土地承包经营权证、林权证、草原使用权证，并登记造册，确认土地承包经营权。 The local people’s government at the country level or above shall issue a certificate of the right to the contracted management of land, a forestry right certificate or a grassland-use right certificate to the holder, register it in the brochure so as to confirm such rights.
第一百二十八条 土地承包经营权人依照农村土地承包法的规定，有权将土地承包经营权采取转包、互换、转让等方式流转。流转的期限不得超过承包期的剩余期限。未经依法批准，不得将承包地用于非农建设。 Article 128 The holder of the right to the contracted management of land has the right, in accordance with the provisions in the law on the contracting of rural land, to circulate his/her such right. The circulated term may not be more than the remnant term of the original contract. Any contracted land may not be used for non-agricultural constructions without approval.
第一百二十九条 土地承包经营权人将土地承包经营权互换、转让，当事人要求登记的，应当向县级以上地方人民政府申请土地承包经营权变更登记；未经登记，不得对抗善意第三人。 Article 129 In case the right to the contracted management of land is circulated by means of exchange or transfer, where the parties concerned require for the registration of such circulation, an application for the alteration registration thereof shall be filed to the local people’s government at the county level or above. Without such registration, neither party may challenge any third party with good faith.
第一百三十条 承包期内发包人不得调整承包地。 Article 130 The contract-letting party may not readjust the contracted land within the duration of a contract.
因自然灾害严重毁损承包地等特殊情形，需要适当调整承包的耕地和草地的，应当依照农村土地承包法等法律规定办理。 In case it is necessary to readjust the cultivated land or grassland as contracted by virtue of such especial events as natural calamities that have materially injured the contracted land, a readjustment may, in accordance with the legal provisions in the law on the contracting of rural land and other related laws, be carried out.
第一百三十一条 承包期内发包人不得收回承包地。农村土地承包法等法律另有规定的，依照其规定。 Article 131 The contract-letting party may not take back the contracted land within the term of the contract. In case there exists any otherwise provision in the law on the contracting of rural land or any other law, such provision shall prevail.
第一百三十二条 承包地被征收的，土地承包经营权人有权依照本法第四十二条第二款的规定获得相应补偿。 Article 132 In case a contracted land is expropriated, the holder of the right to the contracted management of such land has the right to obtain corresponding compensations in accordance with Paragraph 2 of Article 42 in the present Law.
第一百三十三条 通过招标、拍卖、公开协商等方式承包荒地等农村土地，依照农村土地承包法等法律和国务院的有关规定，其土地承包经营权可以转让、入股、抵押或者以其他方式流转。 Article 133 As regards the barren land or other rural land that is contracted through bid invitation, auction, or open negotiation, etc, the right to the contracted management thereof may, according to the law on the contracting of rural land and other laws as well the related regulations of the State Council, be circulated by means of alienation, lease, equity contribution, or mortgage, etc.
第一百三十四条 国家所有的农用地实行承包经营的，参照本法的有关规定。 Article 134 In case the contracted management is conducted over any state-owned rural land, the related provisions in the present Law shall apply by analogy.
第十二章 建设用地使用权 Chapter XII Right to Use Construction Land
第一百三十五条 建设用地使用权人依法对国家所有的土地享有占有、使用和收益的权利，有权利用该土地建造建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施。 Article 135 The holder of the right to use construction land has the right to possess, use and seek proceeds from the land owned by the state, and shall be entitled to the construction of buildings, fixtures and their auxiliary facilities by making use of such land.
第一百三十六条 建设用地使用权可以在土地的地表、地上或者地下分别设立。新设立的建设用地使用权，不得损害已设立的用益物权。 Article 136 The right to use construction land may be created separately on the surface of or above or under the land. The newly-established one may not injure the usufructuary right that has already been established.
第一百三十七条 设立建设用地使用权，可以采取出让或者划拨等方式。 Article 137 The right to use construction land may be created through transfer or allotment, etc.
工业、商业、旅游、娱乐和商品住宅等经营性用地以及同一土地有两个以上意向用地者的，应当采取招标、拍卖等公开竞价的方式出让。 As regards the land used for purposes of industry, business, entertainment or commercial dwelling houses, etc. as well as the land with two or more intended users, the alienation thereof shall adopt such means as auction, bid invitation or any other public bidding method.
严格限制以划拨方式设立建设用地使用权。采取划拨方式的，应当遵守法律、行政法规关于土地用途的规定。 It is severely restrained to create the right to use construction land through allotment. For adopting such means, the provisions on land uses in the laws and administrative regulations shall be observed.
第一百三十八条 采取招标、拍卖、协议等出让方式设立建设用地使用权的，当事人应当采取书面形式订立建设用地使用权出让合同。 Article 138 In case the right to use construction land is created through auction, bid invitation, or agreement, etc., the related parties shall conclude a written contract on the transfer of such right.
建设用地使用权出让合同一般包括下列条款： In general, a contract on transfer of the right to use construction land shall contain the items as follows:
（一） 当事人的名称和住所； (1) name and domicile of the parties concerned;
（二） 土地界址、面积等； (2) [] and acreage, etc. of the land;
（三） 建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施占用的空间； (3) space to be covered by buildings, fixtures and affiliated facilities thereof;
（四） 土地用途； (4) use purposes;
（五） 使用期限； (5) use term;
（六） 出让金等费用及其支付方式； (6) payment methods for allotment fees and other fees; and
（七） 解决争议的方法。 (7) dispute settlement method.
第一百三十九条 设立建设用地使用权的，应当向登记机构申请建设用地使用权登记。建设用地使用权自登记时设立。登记机构应当向建设用地使用权人发放建设用地使用权证书。 Article 139 For establishing the right to use construction land, an application for registering such right shall be submitted to the registration organ. The right to use construction land shall be established as of the accomplishment of such registration. A certificate on the right to use construction land shall be issued by the registration organ to the holder of the right to use construction land.
第一百四十条 建设用地使用权人应当合理利用土地，不得改变土地用途；需要改变土地用途的，应当依法经有关行政主管部门批准。 Article 140 The holder of the right to use construction land shall reasonably use the land and may not alter the use purpose. In case the purpose of land use needs to be altered, the approval of the relevant administrative department shall be obtained.
第一百四十一条 建设用地使用权人应当依照法律规定以及合同约定支付出让金等费用。 Article 141 The holder of the right to use construction land shall, according to the legal provisions and the contract, pay transfer fees and other fees.
第一百四十二条 建设用地使用权人建造的建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施的所有权属于建设用地使用权人，但有相反证据证明的除外。 Article 142 As regards the buildings, fixtures and their affiliated facilities built by the holder of the right to use construction land, the holder shall enjoy the ownership thereof, unless it is otherwise proved by any contrary evidence.
第一百四十三条 建设用地使用权人有权将建设用地使用权转让、互换、出资、赠与或者抵押，但法律另有规定的除外。 Article 143 Unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law, the holder of the right to use construction land has the right to alienate, exchange, use as equity contributions, endow or mortgage the right to use construction land.
第一百四十四条 建设用地使用权转让、互换、出资、赠与或者抵押的，当事人应当采取书面形式订立相应的合同。使用期限由当事人约定，但不得超过建设用地使用权的剩余期限。 Article 144 For alienating, exchanging, using as equity contribution, endowing, or mortgaging the right to use construction land, the parties shall enter into a corresponding written contract. The parties concerned may make stipulations on the contractual term, but which may not exceed the remnant term as stipulated in the contract on transfer of the right to use construction land.
第一百四十五条 建设用地使用权转让、互换、出资或者赠与的，应当向登记机构申请变更登记。 Article 145 For alienating, exchanging, using as equity contribution, endowing, or mortgaging the right to use construction land, an application for alteration registration shall be submitted to the registration organ.
第一百四十六条 建设用地使用权转让、互换、出资或者赠与的，附着于该土地上的建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施一并处分。 Article 146 When alienating, exchanging, using as equity contribution, endowing, or mortgaging the right to use construction land, the buildings, fixtures and affiliated facilities thereof on such land shall be disposed of at the same time.
第一百四十七条 建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施转让、互换、出资或者赠与的，该建筑物、构筑物及其附属设施占用范围内的建设用地使用权一并处分。 Article 147 When alienating, exchanging, using as equity contribution, endowing, or mortgaging the buildings, fixtures and affiliated facilities thereof, the right to use construction land covered by the aforesaid buildings, fixtures and affiliated facilities thereof shall be disposed of at the same time.
第一百四十八条 建设用地使用权期间届满前，因公共利益需要提前收回该土地的，应当依照本法第四十二条的规定对该土地上的房屋及其他不动产给予补偿，并退还相应的出让金。 Article 148 Before the term of the right to use construction land expires, where it is necessary to take back the land in advance by virtue of public interests, compensations shall, according to Article 42 of this Law, be given to the houses and other realties on such land, and corresponding land transfer fees shall be returned back.
第一百四十九条 住宅建设用地使用权期间届满的，自动续期。 Article 149 When the term of the right to use construction land for dwelling houses expires, it shall be renewed automatically.
非住宅建设用地使用权期间届满后的续期，依照法律规定办理。该土地上的房屋及其他不动产的归属，有约定的，按照约定；没有约定或者约定不明确的，依照法律、行政法规的规定办理。 As regards the term of the right to use construction land not for dwelling houses, the renewing shall be subject to legal provisions. In case there exists any stipulation on the ownership of houses and other realties on the aforesaid land, such stipulation shall prevail; in the case of no or unclear such stipulation, the ownership shall be determined in accordance with the provisions in the laws and administrative regulations.
第一百五十条 建设用地使用权消灭的，出让人应当及时办理注销登记。登记机构应当收回建设用地使用权证书。 Article 150 Where the right to use construction land is terminated, the transferor shall go through deregistration formalities in time, and the certificate on the right to use construction land shall be taken back by the registration organ.
第一百五十一条 集体所有的土地作为建设用地的，应当依照土地管理法等法律规定办理。 Article 151 Where a piece of collectively-owned land is used as construction land, it shall be handled in accordance with the law on land administration and other related laws.
第十三章 宅基地使用权 Chapter XIII Right to Use House Sites
第一百五十二条 宅基地使用权人依法对集体所有的土地享有占有和使用的权利，有权依法利用该土地建造住宅及其附属设施。 Article 152 The holder of the right to use house sites has the right to possess and use land owned by a collective, and to construct residential houses and affiliated facilities thereof by utilizing such land.
第一百五十三条 宅基地使用权的取得、行使和转让，适用土地管理法等法律和国家有关规定。 Article 153 For acquiring, exercising and alienating the right to use house sites, the law on land administration, other related laws and the related provisions of the state shall apply.
第一百五十四条 宅基地因自然灾害等原因灭失的，宅基地使用权消灭。对失去宅基地的村民，应当重新分配宅基地。 Article 154 The right to use house site shall be terminated where a house site is terminated by virtue of any natural disaster, etc.. A villager losing a house site shall be allotted a house site again.
第一百五十五条 已经登记的宅基地使用权转让或者消灭的，应当及时办理变更登记或者注销登记。 Article 155 The alteration or cancellation registration shall be made in time in the case of the alienation or termination of a registered right to use house sites.
第十四章 地役权 Chapter XIV Easement
第一百五十六条 地役权人有权按照合同约定，利用他人的不动产，以提高自己的不动产的效益。 Article 156 An easement holder shall, according to the contract, be entitled to utilize the realty of someone else so as to enhance the efficiency of his own realty.
前款所称他人的不动产为供役地，自己的不动产为需役地。 The term “realty of someone else” as referred to in the preceding Paragraph shall be the servient tenement, and “one’s own realty” shall be the dominant tenement.
第一百五十七条 设立地役权，当事人应当采取书面形式订立地役权合同。 Article 157 For establishing an easement, the parties concerned shall enter into an written easement contract.
地役权合同一般包括下列条款： In general, an easement contract shall contain the items as follows:
（一） 当事人的姓名或者名称和住所； (1) name and domicile of the related parties;
（二） 供役地和需役地的位置； (2) []s of servient tenement and dominant tenement;
（三） 利用目的和方法； (3) purposes of use and methods;
（四） 利用期限； (4) use term;
（五） 费用及其支付方式； (5) fees and payment method; and
（六） 解决争议的方法。 (6) dispute settlement method.
第一百五十八条 地役权自地役权合同生效时设立。当事人要求登记的，可以向登记机构申请地役权登记；未经登记，不得对抗善意第三人。 Article 158 The easement shall be established since the easement contract comes into effect. Where the related parties considers that the registration thereof is necessary, they may apply to the registration organ for easement registration; otherwise, they may not challenge any third party with good faith.
第一百五十九条 供役地权利人应当按照合同约定，允许地役权人利用其土地，不得妨害地役权人行使权利。 Article 159 The holder of servient tenement shall allow an easement holder to use his/its land in accordance with the contract, and may not hamper the latter from exercising the right.
第一百六十条 地役权人应当按照合同约定的利用目的和方法利用供役地，尽量减少对供役地权利人物权的限制。 Article 160 An easement holder shall, according to the purposes and methods as stipulated in the contract, use the servient tenement, and make efforts to reduce the real right restrictions on the holder of the servient tenement.
第一百六十一条 地役权的期限由当事人约定，但不得超过土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权等用益物权的剩余期限。 Article 161 The easement term shall be stipulated by the related parties, however, it can not be longer than the remnant term of such usufructuary rights as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use construction land, etc.
第一百六十二条 土地所有权人享有地役权或者负担地役权的，设立土地承包经营权、宅基地使用权时，该土地承包经营权人、宅基地使用权人继续享有或者负担已设立的地役权。 Article 162 As regards the easement enjoyed or assumed by the owner of the land, where the right to the contracted management of land or the right to use house site is created, holders of such rights the right to the contracted management of land or rights may continuously enjoy or assume such established easement.
第一百六十三条 土地上已设立土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权、宅基地使用权等权利的，未经用益物权人同意，土地所有权人不得设立地役权。 Article 163 Where any such usufructuary right as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use house site, etc on the land has already been established, the land owner may, without consent of the aforesaid usufructuary right holder, not establish any easement.
第一百六十四条 地役权不得单独转让。土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权等转让的，地役权一并转让，但合同另有约定的除外。 Article 164 The easement may not be transferred alone. Unless it is otherwise stipulated by the contract, where any such usufructuary right as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use construction land, the right to use house site, etc is alienated, the easement shall be alienated at the same time.
第一百六十五条 地役权不得单独抵押。土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权等抵押的，在实现抵押权时，地役权一并转让。 Article 165 The easement may not be mortgaged alone. Where the right to the contracted management of land or the right to use construction land, etc. is mortgaged, when such mortgage is realized, the easement shall be alienated simultaneously.
第一百六十六条 需役地以及需役地上的土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权部分转让时，转让部分涉及地役权的，受让人同时享有地役权。 Article 166 When the dominant tenement as well as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use construction land or the right to use house site thereon are partially alienated, the transferee shall enjoy the easement simultaneously in case the easement is involved in the alienated part,.
第一百六十七条 供役地以及供役地上的土地承包经营权、建设用地使用权部分转让时，转让部分涉及地役权的，地役权对受让人具有约束力。 Article 167 When the servient tenement as well as the right to the contracted management of land, the right to use construction land thereon are partially alienated, the easement shall be binding on the alienatee if the easement is involved in alienated part.
第一百六十八条 地役权人有下列情形之一的，供役地权利人有权解除地役权合同，地役权消灭： Article 168 The holder of the servient tenement has the right to rescind the easement contract in case an easement holder is under any of the following circumstances, and the easement shall be terminated:
（一） 违反法律规定或者合同约定，滥用地役权； (1) to go against the legal provisions or the contract, or misuse the easement; or
（二） 有偿利用供役地，约定的付款期间届满后在合理期限内经两次催告未支付费用。 (2) as regards the paid use of servient tenement, upon expiration of the stipulated time limit for payment, fails to pay fees within a reasonable period for two times after being urged to do so.
第一百六十九条 已经登记的地役权变更、转让或者消灭的，应当及时办理变更登记或者注销登记。 Article 169 For changing, alienating or eliminating the registered easement, the alteration or cancellation registration shall be go through in a timely manner.
第四编 担保物权 Part IV Real Rights for Security
第十五章 一般规定 Chapter XV General Rules
第一百七十条 担保物权人在债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现担保物权的情形，依法享有就担保财产优先受偿的权利，但法律另有规定的除外。 Article 170 Where the obligor fails to pay its due debts or any circumstance for realizing real rights for security as stipulated by the parties concerned happens, the holder of real rights for security shall enjoy preferred payments from the property for security, except that it is otherwise provided for by any law.
第一百七十一条 债权人在借贷、买卖等民事活动中，为保障实现其债权，需要担保的，可以依照本法和其他法律的规定设立担保物权。 Article 171 According to the present Law or any other law, an obligee may, in such civil activities as loans or sales, establish the real rights for security in case the security is required for ensuring the realization of its/his credits.
第三人为债务人向债权人提供担保的，可以要求债务人提供反担保。反担保适用本法和其他法律的规定。 Where a third party provides security to the obligee for an obligor, countersecurity from the obligor may be required. The countersecurity shall be pursuant to the present Law and other related laws.
第一百七十二条 设立担保物权，应当依照本法和其他法律的规定订立担保合同。担保合同是主债权债务合同的从合同。主债权债务合同无效，担保合同无效，但法律另有规定的除外。 Article 172 For establishing real rights for security, a security contract shall be entered into in accordance with the present Law and the other related laws. A security contract shall be a subordinate one to the principal contract. Unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law, the security contract shall be invalid when the principal contract is nullified.
担保合同被确认无效后，债务人、担保人、债权人有过错的，应当根据其过错各自承担相应的民事责任。 After a security contract is confirmed to be nullified, the obligor, the security provider and the obligee that has faults shall, in light of their respective faults, undertake corresponding civil liabilities.
第一百七十三条 担保物权的担保范围包括主债权及其利息、违约金、损害赔偿金、保管担保财产和实现担保物权的费用。当事人另有约定的，按照约定。 Article 173 The security range shall cover principal obligee’s rights and their interests, default fines, damages as well as expenses for keeping the property for security and for realizing the real rights for security. In case there are otherwise stipulations between the related parties, such stipulations shall prevail.
第一百七十四条 担保期间，担保财产毁损、灭失或者被征收等，担保物权人可以就获得的保险金、赔偿金或者补偿金等优先受偿。被担保债权的履行期未届满的，也可以提存该保险金、赔偿金或者补偿金等。 Article 174 In case, during the security term, the property for security is damaged, lost or expropriated, the security holder may seek preferred payments from the insurance money, damages or indemnities, etc. incurred therefrom. If the term for performing the obligee’s rights as secured has not expired, such insurance money, damages or indemnities, etc. may be submitted to a competent authority for keeping.
第一百七十五条 第三人提供担保，未经其书面同意，债权人允许债务人转移全部或者部分债务的，担保人不再承担相应的担保责任。 Article 175 As regards any security provided by a third party, where the obligee, without obtaining the written consent of the third party, allows the obligor to transfer all or part of its obligations, the security provider does not have to undertake corresponding security liabilities any more.
第一百七十六条 被担保的债权既有物的担保又有人的担保的，债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现担保物权的情形，债权人应当按照约定实现债权；没有约定或者约定不明确，债务人自己提供物的担保的，债权人应当先就该物的担保实现债权；第三人提供物的担保的，债权人可以就物的担保实现债权，也可以要求保证人承担保证责任。提供担保的第三人承担担保责任后，有权向债务人追偿。 Article 176 As regards a secured credit involving both physical and personal security, where the obligor fails to pay its due debts or any circumstance as stipulated by the parties concerned for realizing the property for security happens, the obligee shall realize the obligee’s rights as stipulated; in the case of no or unclear such stipulation, and where the obligor provides his/its own property for the security, the obligee’s rights shall be realized firstly by the security in property; and if the security by property is provided by a third party, the obligee may, by the physical security or through requiring the guarantor to assume the guaranty liability, realize the obligee’s rights. The third party has the right,, after undertaking the security liability, to recover payments from the obligor.
第一百七十七条 有下列情形之一的，担保物权消灭： Article 177 Real rights for security may be terminated under any of the following circumstances:
（一） 主债权消灭； (1) The principal obligee’s rights are terminated;
（二） 担保物权实现； (2) The real rights for security have been realized;
（三） 债权人放弃担保物权； (3) The obligee waives the real rights for security; or
（四） 法律规定担保物权消灭的其他情形。 (4) Any other circumstance under which the real rights for security will be terminated as provided for by any law.
第一百七十八条 担保法与本法的规定不一致的，适用本法。 Article 178 Where any provision in the Security Law conflicts with that of the present Law, the latter shall prevail.
第十六章 抵押权 Chapter XVI Mortgage Right
第一节 一般抵押权 Section 1 General Mortgage Right
第一百七十九条 为担保债务的履行，债务人或者第三人不转移财产的占有，将该财产抵押给债权人的，债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现抵押权的情形，债权人有权就该财产优先受偿。 Article 179 In order to ensure the payment of debts, an obligor or a third party mortgages his/its properties to the obligee without transferring the possession of such properties, and when the obligor fails to pay due debts or any circumstance as stipulated by the parties concerned for realizing the mortgage right happens, the obligee has the right to seek preferred payments from such properties.
前款规定的债务人或者第三人为抵押人，债权人为抵押权人，提供担保的财产为抵押财产。 The “obligor” or “third party” as referred to in the preceding paragraph shall be the mortgagor, the “obligee” shall be the mortgagee, while the “properties for security” shall be the mortgaged properties.
第一百八十条 债务人或者第三人有权处分的下列财产可以抵押： Article 180 As regards the following properties that the obligor or the third party has the right to dispose of, mortgage may be established thereon :
（一） 建筑物和其他土地附着物； (1) buildings and other objects fixed to land;
（二） 建设用地使用权； (2) the right to use construction land;
（三） 以招标、拍卖、公开协商等方式取得的荒地等土地承包经营权； (3) the right to contracted management of such land as barren land, etc. that is acquired through bid invitation, auction and public consultation, etc.;
（四） 生产设备、原材料、半成品、产品； (4) manufacturing facilities, raw materials, semi-manufactured goods and finished products;
（五） 正在建造的建筑物、船舶、航空器； (5) buildings, vessels and aircraft under construction;
（六） 交通运输工具； (6) means of communications and transportation; and
（七） 法律、行政法规未禁止抵押的其他财产。 (7) other properties not prohibited from being mortgaged by any law or administrative regulation.
抵押人可以将前款所列财产一并抵押。 All the properties listed in the previous paragraph may be mortgaged together by a mortgagor.
第一百八十一条 经当事人书面协议，企业、个体工商户、农业生产经营者可以将现有的以及将有的生产设备、原材料、半成品、产品抵押，债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现抵押权的情形，债权人有权就实现抵押权时的动产优先受偿。 Article 181 An enterprise, individual industrial and commercial household or agricultural production operator may, upon the written agreement between the parties concerned, mortgage the existing manufacturing facilities, raw materials, semi-manufactured goods and finished products or those to be owned in future, and when the obligor fails to pay its/his due debts or any circumstance as stipulated by the parties concerned for realizing the right to mortgage arises, the obligee has the right to seek preferred payments from the chattels existing at the time of the realization of the right to mortgage.
第一百八十二条 以建筑物抵押的，该建筑物占用范围内的建设用地使用权一并抵押。以建设用地使用权抵押的，该土地上的建筑物一并抵押。 Article 182 For mortgaging building, the right to use construction land within the area of this building shall be mortgaged together. When mortgaging the right to use construction land, all the buildings on such land shall be mortgaged together.
抵押人未依照前款规定一并抵押的，未抵押的财产视为一并抵押。 Where a mortgagor fails to mortgage the properties in accordance with the provisions in the preceding paragraph, the properties not mortgaged shall be treated as having been mortgaged together.
第一百八十三条 乡镇、村企业的建设用地使用权不得单独抵押。以乡镇、村企业的厂房等建筑物抵押的，其占用范围内的建设用地使用权一并抵押。 Article 183 As regards the right to use construction land of a township or village enterprise, mortgages may not be alone established thereon. Where the plant of a township and village enterprise is mortgaged, the right to use construction land within the area of such plant shall be mortgaged together.
第一百八十四条 下列财产不得抵押： Article 184 Any of the following properties may not be mortgaged:
（一） 土地所有权； (1) ownership of land;
（二） 耕地、宅基地、自留地、自留山等集体所有的土地使用权，但法律规定可以抵押的除外； (2) the right to use such collectively-owned land as cultivated land, house sites, land and hilly land allotted for private use, etc, except for those mortgagable as prescribed by any law;
（三） 学校、幼儿园、医院等以公益为目的的事业单位、社会团体的教育设施、医疗卫生设施和其他社会公益设施； (3) educational, medical, healthy and other public welfare facilities of such institutions and social groups with the aim of benefiting the public as schools, kindergartens, hospitals, etc;
（四） 所有权、使用权不明或者有争议的财产； (4) properties with unclear or controversial ownership or use rights;
（五） 依法被查封、扣押、监管的财产； (5) properties legally confiscated, seized or controlled; or
（六） 法律、行政法规规定不得抵押的其他财产。 (6) other properties that cannot be mortgaged as prescribed by any law or administrative regulation.
第一百八十五条 设立抵押权，当事人应当采取书面形式订立抵押合同。 Article 185 For establishing a mortgage right, the parties concerned shall enter into a written mortgage contract.
抵押合同一般包括下列条款： In general, a mortgage contract shall contain the items as follows:
（一） 被担保债权的种类和数额； (1) the variety and sum of the secured obligee’s rights;
（二） 债务人履行债务的期限； (2) the time limit to pay debts by the obligor;
（三） 抵押财产的名称、数量、质量、状况、所在地、所有权归属或者使用权归属； (3) the name, amount, quality, situation, [], attribution of ownership or use right of the mortgaged property; and
（四） 担保的范围。 (4) the security scope.
第一百八十六条 抵押权人在债务履行期届满前，不得与抵押人约定债务人不履行到期债务时抵押财产归债权人所有。 Article 186 The mortgagee and the mortgagor may, prior to the expiration of the time limit for paying debts, not stipulate that the ownership of the mortgaged property will attributed to the obligee when the obligor fails to pay its due debts.
第一百八十七条 以本法第一百八十条第一款第一项至第三项规定的财产或者第五项规定的正在建造的建筑物抵押的，应当办理抵押登记。抵押权自登记时设立。 Article 187 In case properties as provided for in Items (1), (2) and (3) of Paragraph 1 of Article 180 in the present Law or a building under construction in Item (5) are mortgaged, the mortgage registration shall be gone through, and such mortgage right shall be established as of the date of registration.
第一百八十八条 以本法第一百八十条第一款第四项、第六项规定的财产或者第五项规定的正在建造的船舶、航空器抵押的，抵押权自抵押合同生效时设立；未经登记，不得对抗善意第三人。 Article 188 In case properties as provided for in Items (4) or (6) of Paragraph 1 of Article 180 of the present Law or a vessel or aircraft under construction as provided for in Item (5) are mortgaged, the mortgage right shall be established since the mortgage contract comes into effect; without the registration, the mortgage right may not challenge any third party with good faith.
第一百八十九条 企业、个体工商户、农业生产经营者以本法第一百八十一条规定的动产抵押的，应当向抵押人住所地的工商行政管理部门办理登记。抵押权自抵押合同生效时设立；未经登记，不得对抗善意第三人。 Article 189 As regards the mortgage of the chattels prescribed in Article 181 of the present Law provided by an enterprise, individual industrial and commercial household or agricultural production operator, registration shall be handled by the administrative department for industry and commerce at the locality of the mortgagor. The mortgage right shall be established since the mortgage contract comes into effect; without the registration, such mortgage right may not challenge any third party with good faith.
依照本法第一百八十一条规定抵押的，不得对抗正常经营活动中已支付合理价款并取得抵押财产的买受人。 The mortgage as provided for in Article 181 of the present Law may not challenge the buyer which has paid a reasonable price and obtained the mortgaged property in normal business operations.
第一百九十条 订立抵押合同前抵押财产已出租的，原租赁关系不受该抵押权的影响。抵押权设立后抵押财产出租的，该租赁关系不得对抗已登记的抵押权。 Article 190 Where the mortgaged property has been leased prior to the entering into of the mortgage contract, the original leasehold relations may not be impacted by the mortgage right. Where it is leased after the establishment of the mortgage right, the leasehold relation may be challenge the registered mortgage right.
第一百九十一条 抵押期间，抵押人经抵押权人同意转让抵押财产的，应当将转让所得的价款向抵押权人提前清偿债务或者提存。转让的价款超过债权数额的部分归抵押人所有，不足部分由债务人清偿。 Article 191 Where a mortgagor alienates, upon consent of the mortgagee, the mortgaged property during the mortgage term, the money generated from such alienation shall be used to pay off debts to the mortgagee in advance or be submitted to a competent authority for keeping. The value exceeding the obligee’s rights shall be attributed to the mortgagor, and the gap shall be paid off by the obligor.
抵押期间，抵押人未经抵押权人同意，不得转让抵押财产，但受让人代为清偿债务消灭抵押权的除外。 Without the mortgagee’s consent, a mortgagor may not alienate the mortgaged property during the mortgage term,, unless the transferee pays off the debts on behalf of the mortgagor so as to terminate the mortgage right.
第一百九十二条 抵押权不得与债权分离而单独转让或者作为其他债权的担保。债权转让的，担保该债权的抵押权一并转让，但法律另有规定或者当事人另有约定的除外。 Article 192 The mortgage right may not be alienated alone, or be used as a security for other obligee’s rights by departing from the obligee’s rights. Unless it is otherwise prescribed by any law or is otherwise stipulated by the parties concerned, when the obligee’s rights are alienated, the mortgage right thereof shall be alienated concurrently.
第一百九十三条 抵押人的行为足以使抵押财产价值减少的，抵押权人有权要求抵押人停止其行为。抵押财产价值减少的，抵押权人有权要求恢复抵押财产的价值，或者提供与减少的价值相应的担保。抵押人不恢复抵押财产的价值也不提供担保的，抵押权人有权要求债务人提前清偿债务。 Article 193 Where any act of the mortgagor may sufficiently cause the reduction of the value of the mortgaged property, the mortgagee has the right to require the mortgagor to cease such act. Where the value of the mortgaged property has been lowered, the mortgagee has the right to require the mortgagor to recover the value, or provide a security equal to the reduced value. Where the mortgagor neither recovers the value nor provides any security, the mortgagee has the right to require the obligor to pay off the debts in advance.
第一百九十四条 抵押权人可以放弃抵押权或者抵押权的顺位。抵押权人与抵押人可以协议变更抵押权顺位以及被担保的债权数额等内容，但抵押权的变更，未经其他抵押权人书面同意，不得对其他抵押权人产生不利影响。 Article 194 A mortgagee may abandon the mortgage right or the sequence thereof. A mortgagee and a mortgagor may, through negotiations, alter the sequence of the mortgage right or the amount of secured obligee’s rights, etc., however, such alteration may not produce unfavorable influences on any other mortgagee without the written consent thereof.
债务人以自己的财产设定抵押，抵押权人放弃该抵押权、抵押权顺位或者变更抵押权的，其他担保人在抵押权人丧失优先受偿权益的范围内免除担保责任，但其他担保人承诺仍然提供担保的除外。 Where an obligor creates the mortgage by its/his own properties, and the mortgagee abandons the mortgage right or the sequence thereof or alter such mortgage right, other security providers shall, within the scope for which the said mortgagee has lost the right to seek preferred payments, be exempted from the security liability, unless any of other security providers promises to provide the security all the same.
第一百九十五条 债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现抵押权的情形，抵押权人可以与抵押人协议以抵押财产折价或者以拍卖、变卖该抵押财产所得的价款优先受偿。协议损害其他债权人利益的，其他债权人可以在知道或者应当知道撤销事由之日起一年内请求人民法院撤销该协议。 Article 195 When the obligor fails to pay its/his due debts or any circumstance as stipulated by the parties concerned for realizing the right to mortgage arises, the mortgagee may, upon negotiation with the mortgagor, convert the mortgaged property into money or seek preferred payments from the money generated from the auction or sale of the mortgaged property. Where the said agreement has injured the interests of any other obligee, the obligee may, within one year after he/it has known or should know the cause for cancellation, require the people’s court to cancel such agreement.
抵押权人与抵押人未就抵押权实现方式达成协议的，抵押权人可以请求人民法院拍卖、变卖抵押财产。 Where no agreement on the means of realizing the mortgage right is achieved between the mortgagee and the mortgagor, the mortgagee may require the people’s court to auction or sell off the mortgaged property.
抵押财产折价或者变卖的，应当参照市场价格。 When converting into money or selling off the mortgaged property, its marker price shall be referred to.
第一百九十六条 依照本法第一百八十一条规定设定抵押的，抵押财产自下列情形之一发生时确定： Article 196 As regards the mortgage created in accordance with Article 181 of the present Law, the mortgaged property shall be determined when any of the following circumstances arises:
（一） 债务履行期届满，债权未实现； (1) Upon expiration of the time limit for paying debts, the obligee’s rights have not been realized;
（二） 抵押人被宣告破产或者被撤销； (2) The mortgagor has been declared bankrupt or has been canceled;
（三） 当事人约定的实现抵押权的情形； (3) Other circumstances as stipulated by the parties concerned occurs for realizing the mortgage right; or
（四） 严重影响债权实现的其他情形。 (4) Any other circumstance seriously impacting the realization of obligee’s rights.
第一百九十七条 债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现抵押权的情形，致使抵押财产被人民法院依法扣押的，自扣押之日起抵押权人有权收取该抵押财产的天然孳息或者法定孳息，但抵押权人未通知应当清偿法定孳息的义务人的除外。 Article 197 When the obligor fails to pay its/his due debts or any circumstance as stipulated by the parties concerned for realizing the mortgage right arises, and the mortgaged property is thus seized by the people’s court in accordance with law, the mortgagee has the right to collect natural or statutory fruits of the mortgaged property as of the date of seizure, unless the mortgagee has failed to inform the subject liable to pay off statutory fruits.
前款规定的孳息应当先充抵收取孳息的费用。 As regards the “fruits” as referred to in the preceding paragraph, they shall be firstly used for paying the collection expenses thereof.
第一百九十八条 抵押财产折价或者拍卖、变卖后，其价款超过债权数额的部分归抵押人所有，不足部分由债务人清偿。 Article 198 The value exceeding the obligee’s rights shall be attributed to the mortgagor, and the gap shall be paid off by the obligor, after the mortgaged property has been converted into money, auctioned or sold off.
第一百九十九条 同一财产向两个以上债权人抵押的，拍卖、变卖抵押财产所得的价款依照下列规定清偿： Article 199 In case a same property is mortgaged to two or more obligees concurrently, the money generated from the auction or sale of the mortgaged property shall be used for paying debts in light of the prescriptions as follows:
（一） 抵押权已登记的，按照登记的先后顺序清偿；顺序相同的，按照债权比例清偿； (1) In case all the mortgage rights to have been registered, the payments shall be made according to the registration sequence; and where the sequence is the same, the payments shall be made on the basis of the proportion of obligee’s rights;
（二） 抵押权已登记的先于未登记的受偿； (2) The registered mortgage right shall be cleared off prior to the unregistered one; and
（三） 抵押权未登记的，按照债权比例清偿。 (3) In case no mortgage right has been registered, the payments shall be made on basis of the proportion of obligee’s rights.
第二百条 建设用地使用权抵押后，该土地上新增的建筑物不属于抵押财产。该建设用地使用权实现抵押权时，应当将该土地上新增的建筑物与建设用地使用权一并处分，但新增建筑物所得的价款，抵押权人无权优先受偿。 Article 200 The buildings newly constructed on the land after the mortgage of the right to use construction land may not belong to the mortgaged properties. Such newly-constructed buildings can be disposed of together with the disposal of the aforesaid right to use construction land so as to realize the mortgage right, however, the mortgagee has no right to seek preferred payments from the money generated from the disposal of these newly-constructed buildings.
第二百零一条 依照本法第一百八十条第一款第三项规定的土地承包经营权抵押的，或者依照本法第一百八十三条规定以乡镇、村企业的厂房等建筑物占用范围内的建设用地使用权一并抵押的，实现抵押权后，未经法定程序，不得改变土地所有权的性质和土地用途。 Article 201 As regards the mortgage of the right to the contracted management of land as provided for in Item (3) of Paragraph 1 of Article 180 of the present Law or the right to use construction land occupied by the plant or any other building of a township or village enterprise as prescribed in Article 183 of the present Law, after such mortgage right is realized, without completing the statutory procedures, the nature of land ownership or land use may not be altered.
第二百零二条 抵押权人应当在主债权诉讼时效期间行使抵押权；未行使的，人民法院不予保护。 Article 202 A mortgagee shall, within the limitation of action for the principal obligee’s rights, exercise the mortgage right, otherwise, such mortgage right will not be protected by the people’s court.
第二节 最高额抵押权 Section 1I Mortgage Right at Maximum Amount
第二百零三条 为担保债务的履行，债务人或者第三人对一定期间内将要连续发生的债权提供担保财产的，债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现抵押权的情形，抵押权人有权在最高债权额限度内就该担保财产优先受偿。 Article 203 For ensuring the payment of debts, an obligor or third party may provide mortgage security to the obligee for the obligee’s rights that will continuously happen within a certain term, and when the obligor fails to pay its/his due debts or any circumstance as stipulated by the parties concerned for realizing the mortgage right happens, the mortgagee has the right to seek preferred payments from the security properties within the maximum amount of obligee’s rights.
最高额抵押权设立前已经存在的债权，经当事人同意，可以转入最高额抵押担保的债权范围。 The obligee’s rights existing prior to the establishment of the mortgage right at maximum amount may, upon the consent of the parties concerned, be incorporated into the scope of obligee’s rights under the mortgage security at maximum amount.
第二百零四条 最高额抵押担保的债权确定前，部分债权转让的，最高额抵押权不得转让，但当事人另有约定的除外。 Article 204 Unless it is otherwise stipulated by the parties concerned, in case part of obligee’s rights are transferred prior to the establishment of the mortgage security at maximum amount, the mortgage right at maximum amount may not be transferred.
第二百零五条 最高额抵押担保的债权确定前，抵押权人与抵押人可以通过协议变更债权确定的期间、债权范围以及最高债权额，但变更的内容不得对其他抵押权人产生不利影响。 Article 205 Prior to the determination of the obligee’s rights under the mortgage security at maximum amount, the mortgagee and the mortgagor may, upon agreement, alter the term for the determination of the obligee’s rights, the scope of obligee’s rights or the maximum amount of obligee’s rights, however, such alteration may not cause any unfavorable influence to any other mortgagee.
第二百零六条 有下列情形之一的，抵押权人的债权确定： Article 206 The mortgagee’s obligee’s rights shall be determined, if any of the following circumstances occurs,:
（一） 约定的债权确定期间届满； (1) The stipulated term for the determination of the obligee’s rights expires;
（二） 没有约定债权确定期间或者约定不明确，抵押权人或者抵押人自最高额抵押权设立之日起满二年后请求确定债权； (2) In case there is no stipulation on such term or the related stipulations are not explicit, and where the mortgagee or the mortgagor requires determine the obligee’s rights after two years as of the date for the establishment of the mortgage right at maximum amount;
（三） 新的债权不可能发生； (3) no new obligee’s right may happen;
（四） 抵押财产被查封、扣押； (4) The mortgaged property is sealed up or seized;
（五） 债务人、抵押人被宣告破产或者被撤销； (5) The obligor or the mortgagor is declared bankrupt or is revoked; or
（六） 法律规定债权确定的其他情形。 (6) Any other circumstance as prescribed by any other law for determining the obligee’s rights arises.
第二百零七条 最高额抵押权除适用本节规定外，适用本章第一节一般抵押权的规定。 Article 207 The mortgage right at maximum amount shall be governed by, in addition to the provisions in this Section, the provisions on general mortgage right as provided for in Section 1 of this Chapter.
第十七章 质权 Chapter XVII Pledge Right
第一节 动产质权 Section 1 Chattel Pledge
第二百零八条 为担保债务的履行，债务人或者第三人将其动产出质给债权人占有的，债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现质权的情形，债权人有权就该动产优先受偿。 Article 208 For the security of the payment of debts，an obligor or a third party may pledge his (its) chattels to the obligee for occupation, and when the obligor fails to pay due debts or any circumstance for realizing the pledge right as stipulated by the parties happens, the obligee has the right to seek preferred payments from the pledged chattels.
前款规定的债务人或者第三人为出质人，债权人为质权人，交付的动产为质押财产。 The “debtor” or “third party” as referred to in the preceding paragraph shall be the pledger, the “obligee” shall be the pledgee, and the “chattels” as delivered shall be the pledged property.
第二百零九条 法律、行政法规禁止转让的动产不得出质。 Article 209 The chattels，which are forbidden from being pledged by any law or administrative regulation， may not be pledged.
第二百一十条 设立质权，当事人应当采取书面形式订立质权合同。 Article 210 For establishing the pledge right, the parties concerned shall enter into a contract on pledge right in written form.
质权合同一般包括下列条款： In general， a contract on pledge right shall contain the following items:
（一） 被担保债权的种类和数额； (1) the variety and amount of the principal obligee’s rights;
（二） 债务人履行债务的期限； (2) the time limit for the obligor to pay off debts;
（三） 质押财产的名称、数量、质量、状况； (3) the name, amount, quality and condition of the pledge;
（四） 担保的范围； (4) the scope of security; and
（五） 质押财产交付的时间。 (5) the time for the deliver of pledged properties.
第二百一十一条 质权人在债务履行期届满前，不得与出质人约定债务人不履行到期债务时质押财产归债权人所有。 Article 211 The pledgee and the pledger may not, prior to the time limit for paying debts expires， stipulate that the ownership of pledged properties be attributed to the obligee when the obligor fails to pay due debts.
第二百一十二条 质权自出质人交付质押财产时设立。 Article 212 The pledge right shall be established after the pledgee has delivered the pledged properties.
第二百一十三条 质权人有权收取质押财产的孳息，但合同另有约定的除外。 Article 213 Unless it is otherwise stipulated in the contract, a pledgee has the right to obtain the fruits of the pledged properties.
前款规定的孳息应当先充抵收取孳息的费用。 The “fruits” as referred to in the preceding paragraph shall be firstly used for paying the expenses for collecting the fruits.
第二百一十四条 质权人在质权存续期间，未经出质人同意，擅自使用、处分质押财产，给出质人造成损害的，应当承担赔偿责任。 Article 214 Where a pledgee, without consent of the pledger, illegally uses or disposes of the pledged properties within the duration of the pledge right, and thus damages are caused to the pledger, he/it shall make compensations.
第二百一十五条 质权人负有妥善保管质押财产的义务；因保管不善致使质押财产毁损、灭失的，应当承担赔偿责任。 Article 215 A pledgee shall be obliged to properly keep pledged properties; and where pledged properties are damaged or lost by virtue of improper keeping, the pledgee shall make compensations.
质权人的行为可能使质押财产毁损、灭失的，出质人可以要求质权人将质押财产提存，或者要求提前清偿债务并返还质押财产。 Where pledged properties may be damaged or lost by act of the pledgee, the pledger may ask for the pledgee to submit them to a competent authority for keeping or require pay debts in advance and take back them.
第二百一十六条 因不能归责于质权人的事由可能使质押财产毁损或者价值明显减少，足以危害质权人权利的，质权人有权要求出质人提供相应的担保；出质人不提供的，质权人可以拍卖、变卖质押财产，并与出质人通过协议将拍卖、变卖所得的价款提前清偿债务或者提存。 Article 216 Where any cause not attributable to t the pledge’ fault may result in the destruction of the pledged properties or an obvious decrease of the value of the pledge, and which is sufficient to damage the pledgee’s rights, the pledgee has the right to require the pledger to provide corresponding security. Where the pledger refuses to do so, the pledgee may auction or sell off the pledged properties, and may, by negotiating with the pledger, seek preferred payments for the obligee’s rights in advance with the money generated from such auction or sell-off, or submit the said money to a competent authority for keeping.
第二百一十七条 质权人在质权存续期间，未经出质人同意转质，造成质押财产毁损、灭失的，应当向出质人承担赔偿责任。 Article 217 Where a pledgee transfers, without consent of the pledger, the pledge within the duration of the pledge right, and thus destroy or loss are caused to the pledged properties, he/it shall make compensations to the pledger.
第二百一十八条 质权人可以放弃质权。债务人以自己的财产出质，质权人放弃该质权的，其他担保人在质权人丧失优先受偿权益的范围内免除担保责任，但其他担保人承诺仍然提供担保的除外。 Article 218 A pledgee may abandon the pledge right. Where an obligor provide the pledge right by his/its own properties, and the pledgee abandons the pledge right, unless any of other security providers promises to provide the security all the same, other security providers’ security liability will be exempted within the scope for which the pledgee has lost the right to seek preferred payments.
第二百一十九条 债务人履行债务或者出质人提前清偿所担保的债权的，质权人应当返还质押财产。 Article 219 Where the obligor has paid off the debts or the pledger has fulfilled the secured obligee’s rights in advance, the pledgee shall return the pledged properties.
债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现质权的情形，质权人可以与出质人协议以质押财产折价，也可以就拍卖、变卖质押财产所得的价款优先受偿。 Where an obligor fails to pay off its due debts or any circumstance for realizing the pledge right as stipulated by the parties concerned happens, the pledgee may, by negotiating with the pledger, convert the pledge into money or seek preferred payments from the money generated from the auction or sell-off of the pledged properties.
质押财产折价或者变卖的，应当参照市场价格。 When converting the pledged properties into money or selling off them, their market price shall be referred to.
第二百二十条 出质人可以请求质权人在债务履行期届满后及时行使质权；质权人不行使的，出质人可以请求人民法院拍卖、变卖质押财产。 Article 220 A pledger may, upon expiration of the time limit for paying debts, request the pledgee to exercise the pledge right in a timely manner; if the pledgee fails to do so, the pledger may ask for the people’s court to auction or sell off the pledged properties.
出质人请求质权人及时行使质权，因质权人怠于行使权利造成损害的，由质权人承担赔偿责任。 Where a pledger has requested the pledgee to exercise the pledge right in a timely manner, but the pledgee is lazy to do so and thus damages are caused, the pledgee shall make compensations.
第二百二十一条 质押财产折价或者拍卖、变卖后，其价款超过债权数额的部分归出质人所有，不足部分由债务人清偿。 Article 221 After pledged properties are converted into money, auctioned or sold off, the value exceeding the obligee’s rights shall be attributed to the pledger, and the gap shall be paid off by the obligor.
第二百二十二条 出质人与质权人可以协议设立最高额质权。 Article 222 The pledger and the pledgee may, upon negotiation, set up the pledge right of maximum amount.
最高额质权除适用本节有关规定外，参照本法第十六章第二节最高额抵押权的规定。 The pledge right of maximum amount shall be governed by, in addition to the related provisions in this Section, the provisions on mortgage right at maximum amount prescribed in Section 1I of Chapter 16 of the present Law by reference.
第二节 权利质权 Section 1I Right Pledge
第二百二十三条 债务人或者第三人有权处分的下列权利可以出质： Article 223 Pledge may be established on any of the following rights which an obligor or third party has the right to dispose of:
（一） 汇票、支票、本票； (1) money orders, checks, and cashier’s checks;
（二） 债券、存款单； (2) bonds and deposit receipts;
（三） 仓单、提单； (3) warehouse receipts and lading bills;
（四） 可以转让的基金份额、股权； (4) transferable fund units and stock rights;
（五） 可以转让的注册商标专用权、专利权、著作权等知识产权中的财产权； (5) such transferable property rights in intellectual property as exclusive trademark rights, patent rights, copyrights, etc;
（六） 应收账款； (6) account receivables; or
（七） 法律、行政法规规定可以出质的其他财产权利。 (7) other property rights that can be pledged as prescribed by any law or administrative regulation.
第二百二十四条 以汇票、支票、本票、债券、存款单、仓单、提单出质的，当事人应当订立书面合同。质权自权利凭证交付质权人时设立；没有权利凭证的，质权自有关部门办理出质登记时设立。 Article 224 The parties concerned shall conclude a written contract for the pledge of a money order, check, cashier’s check, securities, deposit receipt, warehouse receipt or bill of lading. The pledge right shall be established after the deliver of the title certificate of the pledge to the pledgee. In case there is no title certificate, the pledge right shall be established after the related department has handled the registration of the pledge.
第二百二十五条 汇票、支票、本票、债券、存款单、仓单、提单的兑现日期或者提货日期先于主债权到期的，质权人可以兑现或者提货，并与出质人协议将兑现的价款或者提取的货物提前清偿债务或者提存。 Article 225 The pledgee may make redemption or pick up the goods, and may, by negotiating with the pledger, seek preferred payments in advance with the redeemed money or the picked up goods, or submit the said money or goods to a competent authority for keeping，in case the date of redemption or delivery of the money order, check, cashier’s check, bonds, deposit receipt, warehouse receipt or lading bill of is prior to the deadline of principal obligee’s rights.
第二百二十六条 以基金份额、股权出质的，当事人应当订立书面合同。以基金份额、证券登记结算机构登记的股权出质的，质权自证券登记结算机构办理出质登记时设立；以其他股权出质的，质权自工商行政管理部门办理出质登记时设立。 Article 226 The parties concerned shall enter into a written contract for the pledge of fund units or stock rights. As regards the pledge of fund units or the stock rights that are registered in the securities depository and clearing institution, the pledge right shall be established after the securities depository and clearing institution has handled the registration of the pledge. As regards the pledge of other stock rights, the pledge right shall be established after the administrations for industry and commerce has handled the registration of the pledge.
基金份额、股权出质后，不得转让，但经出质人与质权人协商同意的除外。出质人转让基金份额、股权所得的价款，应当向质权人提前清偿债务或者提存。 After the fund units or stock rights have been pledged, unless it is otherwise agreed to by the pledger and the pledgee upon negotiations， they may not be alienated. As regards the money incurred from the transfer of fund units or stock rights， the pledger shall fulfill the obligee’s rights to the pledgee in advance with it, or submit it to a competent authority for keeping.
第二百二十七条 以注册商标专用权、专利权、著作权等知识产权中的财产权出质的，当事人应当订立书面合同。质权自有关主管部门办理出质登记时设立。 Article 227 As regards the pledge such property rights in the intellectual property as registered trademark rights, patent rights, copyrights，etc, the parties concerned shall enter into a written contract, and the pledge right shall be established after the related competent authority has handled the registration of the pledge.
知识产权中的财产权出质后，出质人不得转让或者许可他人使用，但经出质人与质权人协商同意的除外。出质人转让或者许可他人使用出质的知识产权中的财产权所得的价款，应当向质权人提前清偿债务或者提存。 After the property rights in the intellectual property have been pledged, unless it is otherwise agreed to between the pledger and the pledgee upon negotiations， the pledger may not alienate the pledge or permit anyone else to use it. As regards the money incurred from the alienation of the pledged intellectual property or the permission of anyone else to use it， the pledger shall use it to fulfill the obligee’s rights in advance, or submit it to a competent authority for keeping.
第二百二十八条 以应收账款出质的，当事人应当订立书面合同。质权自信贷征信机构办理出质登记时设立。 Article 228 As regards the pledge of receivables, the parties concerned shall enter into a written contract, and the pledge right shall be established after the related credit rating institution has handled the registration of the pledge.
应收账款出质后，不得转让，但经出质人与质权人协商同意的除外。出质人转让应收账款所得的价款，应当向质权人提前清偿债务或者提存。 After the receivables have been pledged, unless it is otherwise agreed on by the pledger and the pledgee upon negotiations， the pledger may not alienate the pledged receivables. As regards money incurred form the alienation of accounts receivable， the pledger shall use it to fulfill the obligee’s rights in advance, or submit it to a competent authority for keeping.
第二百二十九条 权利质权除适用本节规定外，适用本章第一节动产质权的规定。 Article 229 The pledge of rights shall be governed by， in addition to the provisions prescribed in this Section， the provisions in Section 1 of this Chapter on the pledge of chattels.
第十八章 留置权 Chapter XVIII Lien
第二百三十条 债务人不履行到期债务，债权人可以留置已经合法占有的债务人的动产，并有权就该动产优先受偿。 Article 230 Where an obligor fails to pay off its due debts, the obligee may take lien of the chattels that are owned by the obligor and lawfully occupied by the obligee, and has the right to seek preferred payments from such chattels.
前款规定的债权人为留置权人，占有的动产为留置财产。 The “obligee” as referred to in the preceding Paragraph shall be the lienor, and the occupied chattels shall be the property under lien.
第二百三十一条 债权人留置的动产，应当与债权属于同一法律关系，但企业之间留置的除外。 Article 231 The chattels taken as lien by the obligee and the obligee’s rights shall fall into a same legal relationship, except for the lien between enterprises.
第二百三十二条 法律规定或者当事人约定不得留置的动产，不得留置。 Article 232 As regards chattels of which no lien may be taken as prescribed by law or stipulated by the parties concerned, lien may not be taken of them.
第二百三十三条 留置财产为可分物的，留置财产的价值应当相当于债务的金额。 Article 233 Where a property under lien is a divisible object, its value shall be equal to the amount of debts.
第二百三十四条 留置权人负有妥善保管留置财产的义务；因保管不善致使留置财产毁损、灭失的，应当承担赔偿责任。 Article 234 A lienor shall assume the obligation to properly keep the property under lien, and shall make compensations in case the property under lien is damaged or lost by virtue of improper safekeeping.
第二百三十五条 留置权人有权收取留置财产的孳息。 Article 235 A lienor has the right to obtain the fruits generated from the property under lien.
前款规定的孳息应当先充抵收取孳息的费用。 The “fruits” as referred to in the preceding paragraph shall be firstly used for the payments of the expenses for collecting the fruits.
第二百三十六条 留置权人与债务人应当约定留置财产后的债务履行期间；没有约定或者约定不明确的，留置权人应当给债务人两个月以上履行债务的期间，但鲜活易腐等不易保管的动产除外。债务人逾期未履行的，留置权人可以与债务人协议以留置财产折价，也可以就拍卖、变卖留置财产所得的价款优先受偿。 Article 236 A lienor shall, after the property is taken as lien, stipulate with the obligor the term for the fulfillment of the obligee’s rights; and in caseof no or unclear stipulation, two months or more shall be given to the obligor for fulfilling the obligee’s rights, except for such chattels that are not easy to be kept as fresh goods, perishable goods, etc.. Where the obligor fails to fulfill within the time limit, the lienor may convert the property under lien into money by negotiating with the obligor, or seek preferred payments from the money generated from the auction or sell-off the property under lien.
留置财产折价或者变卖的，应当参照市场价格。 When the property under lien is converted into money or sold off, its market price should be referred to.
第二百三十七条 债务人可以请求留置权人在债务履行期届满后行使留置权；留置权人不行使的，债务人可以请求人民法院拍卖、变卖留置财产。 Article 237 An obligor may, upon expiration of the time limit for fulfilling the obligee’s rights, require the lienor to exercise the lien; and where the lienor fails to do so, the obligor may ask for the people’s court to auction or sell off the property under lien.
第二百三十八条 留置财产折价或者拍卖、变卖后，其价款超过债权数额的部分归债务人所有，不足部分由债务人清偿。 Article 238 The obligor shall after the property under lien is converted into money, auctioned or sold off, enjoy the ownership of the value exceeding the obligee’s rights or make up shall be attributed to the gap.
第二百三十九条 同一动产上已设立抵押权或者质权，该动产又被留置的，留置权人优先受偿。 Article 239 The lienor has the right to seek preferred payments in case the right to mortgage or the right of pledge has been established on a chattel before it is taken as lien.
第二百四十条 留置权人对留置财产丧失占有或者留置权人接受债务人另行提供担保的，留置权消灭。 Article 240 The lien shall perish in case a lienor losses the possession of the property under lien or accepts other security separately provided by the obligor.
第五编 占有 Part V Possession
第十九章 占有 Chapter XIX Possession
第二百四十一条 基于合同关系等产生的占有，有关不动产或者动产的使用、收益、违约责任等，按照合同约定；合同没有约定或者约定不明确的，依照有关法律规定。 Article 241 In case the possession occurs on the basis of a contractual relationship, the related stipulations in the contract shall be apply to the use, proceedings and default liability of the realty or chattel concerned; and the relevant legal provisions shall apply if there is no such stipulation in the contract or the stipulations are not clear,.
第二百四十二条 占有人因使用占有的不动产或者动产，致使该不动产或者动产受到损害的，恶意占有人应当承担赔偿责任。 Article 242 Where a possessor causes infringes to the realty or chattel under his (its) possession when using them, it/he shall make compensations if being malicious.
第二百四十三条 不动产或者动产被占有人占有的，权利人可以请求返还原物及其孳息，但应当支付善意占有人因维护该不动产或者动产支出的必要费用。 Article 243 Where a realty or chattel is possessed by a possessor, the holder may ask for the return of original object and fruits thereof, but necessary expenses for the maintenance of this realty or chattel paid by the bone fide possessor shall be paid possessor l.
第二百四十四条 占有的不动产或者动产毁损、灭失，该不动产或者动产的权利人请求赔偿的，占有人应当将因毁损、灭失取得的保险金、赔偿金或者补偿金等返还给权利人；权利人的损害未得到足够弥补的，恶意占有人还应当赔偿损失。 Article 244 Where a realty or chattel under possession is damaged or lost, the possessor shall return the insurance money, damages or indemnities for the said destruction or loss to the holder if the holder requires compensations; and a malicious possessor shall make compensations in case the impairment to the holder has not been sufficiently made up.
第二百四十五条 占有的不动产或者动产被侵占的，占有人有权请求返还原物；对妨害占有的行为，占有人有权请求排除妨害或者消除危险；因侵占或者妨害造成损害的，占有人有权请求损害赔偿。 Article 245 Where a realty or chattel under possession is encroached on, the possessor has the right to require the return of the original object; where any act impairs the possession, the possessor has the right to request the termination of impairment or danger; and where any damage is caused by virtue of encroachment or interference, the possessor has the right to require compensations.
占有人返还原物的请求权，自侵占发生之日起一年内未行使的，该请求权消灭。 The claim of a possessor for returning the original object shall perish, if the possessor fails to exercise it within one year as of the date of encroachment.
附　则 Supplementary Rules
第二百四十六条 法律、行政法规对不动产统一登记的范围、登记机构和登记办法作出规定前，地方性法规可以依照本法有关规定作出规定。 Article 246 A local regulation may, before any law or administrative regulation prescribes the scope, organ and measures for uniform registration of realties, provide for related matters in accordance with the related provisions in the present Law.
第二百四十七条 本法自2007年10月1日起施行。 Article 247 The present Law shall enter into force as of October 1, 2007.

《论语》英文翻译前言

By Shinery Cheung

        自去年六、七月份第一次完整地看完了《论语》之后，就一直有个强烈的愿望，希望把它翻译成英文。到今天，时间已经过去了一个年头，这种念头，非但没有递减，反而与日俱增。在周边朋友的鼓励下，也在我自己内心狂热思想的捣鼓下，我在2007年的6月24日的今天做出了一个伟大的决定，从这一时这一刻起，我准备向这座文学的高峰攀登，向伟人的思想致敬。

        我已经不是第一个吃螃蟹的人了，因为早闻辜鸿铭先生已经捷足先登了。这委实是一个遗憾，也是我无法改变的命运，谁让我的出生比他晚了整整一百二十年呢？但我起誓，如果我比他出生哪怕是早一年，一月，一天，一日，一小时，我都绝不会让他"得逞"的。

        去年的这个时候，我大概看过辜鸿铭先生《论语》“学而篇”的译作，到现在印象已不太清楚，隐约记得句子好象有些长，复合句类型的翻译风格。本次，在我自己即将翻译之际，我决定不去重看他的范本，或者其它任何人的译作，以免自己的翻译套上他人的印记，或者被后人称之为某某人的“拷贝”。

        在于丹的《论语》心得发行之前，我曾经想过写两篇文章，一篇是“读《论语》论中国的礼仪”，另一篇是“读《论语》论孝”。但今天，我不想为了哗众取宠，去特意重新读一遍《论语》，去搜寻《论语》的只言片语，我想孔子的某些思想的精髓，已经根植在我的内心，也已经或者正在改变我的人生观、价值观。当然，今天的我，并不苟合孔子的所有观点，如果时光可以倒流，如果存在一个时间隧道，我会钻进去，跟孔圣人会面，并告诉他，“夫子，这个观点好象不太对，可否改改？”但是，今天，我们谁也无法撼动《论语》在读者心目中的地位，所以，我唯一能做的是尊重原著，尊重历史。

        有感于罗曼·罗兰《名人传》的详细注释，我想在《论语》的翻译中，沿袭这一作风，加以详细的民俗、史料、人物生平等的注释，让一个普通的，略懂英语的外国人，不管他们是来自英语母语系国家，还是英语第二语系国家，哪怕没有任何中国的文化、历史知识的储备，能够基本看懂这部英文版的《论语》，并且能够以自己的方式，体会到《论语》带给他们某些感动的成分。如果我的翻译能让他们领悟到哪怕只有十分之一的孔子的思想精髓，那便是我的十二万分的荣幸了。

        我想模仿《罗马衰亡史》的做法，在这本《论语》英文译稿的首页，印上两幅英文的中国地图，一幅是春秋时期中国的版图及各个诸侯列国的“国界”线；一幅是现代版本的中国地图，好让那些不了解中国地理的外国人知道，两千五百多年前的鲁国，在现代中国的的哪个位置，那时候的陈国又是在现在中国的哪个位置，如此等等，不一而足。

        我不是一个英语专业者，所以，我不敢说我在英文功底上可以和谁去媲美，但我对孔子核心思想的深刻理解，或许多少可以弥补我在英语功底上的蹩脚之处。我不想把这部著作，翻译得晦涩难懂，我只想把它做得短小、精悍、简单明了、通俗易懂，就象我们读一本类似于心灵鸡汤的书籍。

        我们中国人，在文化上历来奉行“拿来主义”，“中学为本，西学为用”，“洋为中用”，“中西合璧”等等的思想，影响了我们几代人。就象邓小平南巡讲话后制定的发展策略上，也是以外向型经济拉动为主，国内需求拉动为辅的政策。在国家经济经过将近三十年的出口拉动的猛烈发展之后，我们也终于盼来了国家日渐强盛，国民日渐富足，社会日渐和谐的国富民强的一天。今天，全世界的人，都似乎把眼光盯向了中国，希望在这个世界第一人口大国，国土面积世界第三的的辽阔土地上，征得一席自己的生存之地。在这样一种状态下，我希望我们也让那些外国人尝尝“拿来主义“的好处，让我们自己也感受一下文化输出的“输出主义”的自豪感。

        有志于这样的使命，我勉励自己认认真真、兢兢业业地把这件事办好、办妥、办漂亮。

By Shinery Cheung On June 24, 2007

Copyright 2007 By Shinery Cheung

All Rights Reserved.